Multitissue transcriptomics demonstrates the systemic physiology of methionine deficiency in broiler chickens.

Methionine (Met) supplementation is common practice in broilers to support nutrition, yet there are gaps in the understanding of its role in systemic physiology. Furthermore, several different Met sources are available that may have different physiological effects. This study evaluated the mode of action of Met deficiency (no Met-supplementation) and supplementation (0.25% DL- or L-Met, 0.41% liquid methionine hydroxy analog-free acid (MHA-FA)), and of Met source (DL-, L- or MHA-FA) in broiler chickens, via host transcriptomics. Biological pathway activation modeling was performed to predict the likely phenotypic effects of differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in tissue samples from the jejunum, liver and breast obtained at 10, 21 and 34/35 d of age from three experiments in a combined analysis. Animal performance data showed that Met deficiency reduced BW, daily BW gain, daily feed intake, and breast yield, and increased feed conversion ratio in all experiments (P < 0.05). Effects of Met deficiency on gene expression were least evident in the jejunum and most evident in the liver and breast, as evidenced by the number of DEG and activated pathways. Activated pathways suggested Met deficiency was associated with inhibited protein turnover, gut barrier integrity, and adaptive immunity functions in the jejunum, that predicted reduced breast yield. There was an interaction with age; in Met-deficient birds, there were 333 DEGs in the jejunum of starter vs finisher birds suggesting young birds were more sensitive to Met deficiency than older birds. In the liver, Met deficiency activated pathways associated with lipid turnover, amino acid metabolism, oxidative stress, and the immune system, whereas in breast, it activated pathways involved in metabolic regulation, hemostasis, the neuronal system, and oxidative stress, again predicting a negative impact on breast yield. In the starter phase, supplementation with DL-Met compared to MHA-FA inhibited gamma-aminobutyric acid activity and oxidative stress in breast tissue. When data from all tissues were integrated, increased expression of a liver gene (ENSGALG00000042797) was found to be correlated with the expression of several genes that best explained variation due to the Met deficiency in jejunum and breast muscle. Some of these genes were involved in anti-oxidant systems. Overall, the findings indicate that impaired growth performance due to Met deficiency results from an array of tissue-specific molecular mechanisms in which oxidative stress plays a key systemic role. Young birds are more sensitive to Met-deficiency and DL-Met was a preferential source of Met than L- or MHA-FA during the starter phase.

Effects of feeding guanidinoacetic acid on oxidative status and creatine metabolism in broilers subjected to chronic cyclic heat stress in the finisher phase.

Dietary guanidinoacetic acid (GAA) has been shown to affect creatine (Cr) metabolic pathways resulting in increased cellular Cr and hitherto broiler performances. Yet, the impact of dietary GAA on improving markers of oxidative status remains equivocal. A model of chronic cyclic heat stress, known to inflict oxidative stress, was employed to test the hypothesis that GAA could modify bird's oxidative status. A total of 720-day-old male Ross 308 broilers were allocated to 3 treatments: 0, 0.6 or 1.2 g/kg GAA was added to corn-SBM diets and fed for 39 d, with 12 replicates (20 birds each) per treatment. The chronic cyclic heat stress model (34°C with 50-60% RH for 7 h daily) was applied in the finisher phase (d 25-39). Samples from 1 bird per pen were taken on d 26 (acute heat stress) and d 39 (chronic heat stress). GAA and Cr in plasma were linearly increased by feeding GAA on either sampling day, illustrating efficient absorption and methylation, respectively. Energy metabolism in breast and heart muscle was greatly supported as visible by increased Cr and phosphocreatine: ATP, thus providing higher capacity for rapid ATP generation in cells. Glycogen stores in breast muscle were linearly elevated by incremental GAA, on d 26 only. More Cr seems to be directed to heart muscle as opposed to skeletal muscle during chronic heat stress as tissue Cr was higher in heart but lower in breast muscle on d 39 as opposed to d 26. The lipid peroxidation marker malondialdehyde, and the antioxidant enzymes superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase showed no alterations by dietary GAA in plasma. Opposite to that, superoxide dismutase activity in breast muscle was linearly lowered when feeding GAA (trend on d 26, effect on d 39). Significant correlations between the assessed parameters and GAA inclusion were identified on d 26 and d 39 using principal component analysis. To conclude, beneficial performance in heat-stressed broilers by GAA is associated with enhanced muscle energy metabolism which indirectly may also support tolerance against oxidative stress.

Feeding guanidinoacetic acid to broiler chickens can compensate for low dietary metabolisable energy formulation.

1. This study compared the responses of broilers to diets supplemented with the same level of guanidinoacetic acid (GAA) but formulated to have different N-corrected apparent metabolisable energy (AMEn) contents. The study involved 1280, one-day-old Ross 308 broilers, in 64 pens comprising 32 pens of males and 32 pens females, (20 birds in each) aged from 0 to 42 d.2. Commercial AME levels of 12.55 MJ/kg, 12.97 MJ/kg and 13.18 MJ/kg in the starter, grower and finisher diets, respectively, were set for the positive control (PC) feed. Four dietary treatments were prepared: PC (as above); negative control 1 (NC; PC - 0.21 MJ ME /kg); NC1 + 0.06% GAA; NC2 (PC - 0.42 MJ ME/kg + 0.06% GAA). Each diet was provided in 16 pens (eight male and eight female), following randomisation.3. Overall, birds fed NC1 had lower feed intakes (FI) compared to birds fed the PC and NC2+ GAA, lower weight gain (WG) compared to all the other diets and lower final body weight than birds fed the GAA diets (P < 0.05). There was a diet x sex interaction (P = 0.039), whereby feeding NC+GAA to female birds improved feed efficiency compared to being fed NC2 and NC1+ GAA, but not in males. Birds fed diets with GAA had a higher poultry efficiency factor (P < 0.001) than those fed NC1.4. There were no effects of treatment or sex on litter moisture, footpad score, white striping, wooden breast, AMEn, dry matter and fat retention (P > 0.05). However, the diet NC1+ GAA had 11.2% higher nitrogen retention coefficient compared to the NC1 diet (P = 0.038).5. Overall, the results implied that lower performance induced by a reduction of dietary AMEn in the range of 0.21 to 0.42 MJ/kg was more than compensated by supplementing 600 g/t GAA to the feed.

Guanidinoacetic acid supplementation improves feed conversion in broilers subjected to heat stress associated with muscle creatine loading and arginine sparing.

It was hypothesized that dietary guanidinoacetic acid (GAA), the precursor of creatine (Cr), would be beneficial to heat-stressed finisher broilers owing to improved cellular energy status and arginine sparing effects. A total of 720 one-day-old male Ross 308 broilers were allocated to 3 treatments, 0 (control), 0.6, or 1.2 g/kg of GAA added to complete corn-soybean meal diets, and were fed for 39 D, with 12 replicates (20 birds each) per treatment. A chronic cyclic heat stress model (at a temperature of 34°C and 50 to 60% relative humidity for 7 h daily) was applied in the finisher phase (day 25-39). Samples were taken on day 26 and 39 to determine thrombocyte, white blood cell, corticosterone, protein and amino acid levels in blood and Cr, phosphocreatine (PCr), and adenosine triphosphate levels in the breast muscle. Meat quality was assessed on day 40 after overnight fasting. Guanidinoacetic acid at a dose of 1.2 g/kg decreased feed-to-gain ratio compared with the control in the grower phase (1.32 vs. 1.35, respectively; P <0.05). In the finisher period, the supplementation of 1.2 g/kg of GAA reduced feed intake compared with the control (-3.3%, P <0.05), whereas both GAA supplementation levels improved feed efficiency markedly (1.76, 1.66, and 1.67 for 0 [control], 0.6, and 1.2 g/kg of GAA, respectively, P <0.05). Mortality outcomes highlight that GAA feeding improved survival during heat stress, supported by lower panting frequency (linear effect, P <0.05). Plasma arginine was higher with increase in dietary GAA concentration on day 26 (+18.3 and + 30.8% for 0.6 and 1.2 g/kg of GAA, respectively; P <0.05). This suggests enhanced availability of arginine for other metabolic purposes than de novo GAA formation. In the breast muscle, PCr (day 39, P <0.05), free Cr (day 39, P <0.05), total Cr (both days, P <0.05), and PCr-to-adenosine triphosphate ratio (day 39, P <0.05) levels were increased with higher GAA content in diet. Guanidinoacetic acid supplementation improved feed conversion and survival during chronic cyclic heat stress, which may be associated with enhanced breast muscle energy status and arginine sparing effect.

Digestibility and metabolism of dietary guanidino acetic acid fed to broilers.

In two feeding experiments the retention of supplemental guanidine acetic acid (GAA) in broilers was investigated. In both experiments, the same three treatments were used; the basal feed was supplemented with 0, 0.6, or 6.0 g GAA per kg of feed. While in a growth study (experiment 1) day-old, male Ross 308 broilers were fed diets for 35 days, these diets were fed for only 8 days to fistulated broilers 34 days of age in a balance study (experiment 2). Feeding 0.6 g/kg GAA did not improve growth performance whereas 6.0 g/kg GAA resulted in a reduction of feed consumption and consequently of weight gain (P ≤ 0.05). Feed conversion was not affected and was 1.48 to 1.49 in all treatments. Increasing levels of dietary GAA gradually increased the creatine concentration in breast muscle and liver tissues (P ≤ 0.05) indicating a transformation and retention of dietary GAA as creatine. In experiment 2 the non-supplemented basal diet allowed us to determine the endogenous GAA, creatine, and creatinine excretions. Accordingly, only small amounts of these metabolites were recovered in feces while they were much higher in urine. Increasing dietary GAA intake increased fecal and renal GAA, creatine, and creatinine excretion and was significant (P ≤ 0.05) at 6.0 g/kg dietary GAA compared to no or 0.6 g/kg GAA supplementation. The mean true fecal digestibility of GAA (99%) was unaffected by the level of supplemental GAA. Considering renal GAA excretions, true availability of supplemental GAA was reduced with increasing dose (83% vs. 71%; P ≤ 0.05). Taking into account creatine and creatinine excretions above those of the basal diet, as they are a consequence of increasing dietary supply, true availability of supplemental GAA shrank from 76% (0.6 g/kg GAA) to 46% (6.0 g/kg GAA; P ≤ 0.05). Changes in blood creatine and creatinine levels reflected the changes observed in the liver and muscle tissues and may suggest increased transport to excretion organs. Data from these experiment were used to estimate the creatine requirement.

Dietary guanidino acetic acid is an efficacious replacement for arginine for young chicks.

Guanidino acetic acid (GAA) is synthesized in the liver and kidney from Arg and Gly and subsequently methylated by S-adenosylmethionine to form creatine. Four bioassays were carried out to determine the capacity of GAA to serve as a dietary replacement for Arg for growing chicks. Broiler chicks were fed Arg-deficient dextrose-casein (0.88% Arg) or corn-corn coproduct-soybean meal (1.0% Arg) basal diets during 9-d battery feeding trials involving 5 pens of 4 chicks per treatment. The dextrose-casein diet was shown to be markedly deficient in Arg as both weight gain and G:F increased (P < 0.01) due to addition of Arg, GAA, or creatine. The optimal level of added GAA was 0.12% of the diet, but this level of GAA or 1.0% creatine-H(2)O did not improve growth performance when added to an Arg-adequate diet. A second assay confirmed this level of optimal Arg in a 2 × 2 factorial arrangement of l-Arg and GAA supplementation. Using a practical-type diet based on corn, corn gluten meal, distillers dried grains with solubles, and soybean meal, similar improvements (P < 0.05) in G:F resulted from addition of 0.25% Arg, 0.12% GAA, or 0.15% creatine·H(2)O. These results demonstrate that 0.12% supplemental GAA, like creatine, produces consistent growth responses in young chicks fed Arg-deficient diets. To provide further evidence of the capacity for GAA to serve as a dietary Arg replacement, the dextrose-casein diet was supplemented with 7 graded doses of Arg in the absence or presence of 0.12% GAA (14 total diets). Quadratic (P < 0.01) responses in weight gain and G:F responses to supplemental Arg were observed. Similar supplemental Arg requirements were estimated in the absence and presence of 0.12% GAA, but GAA elicited a greater improvement (P < 0.05) in G:F when added to Arg-deficient, compared with Arg-adequate, diets. Collectively, these data indicate that GAA can be used as an efficacious replacement for dietary Arg for young chicks.

Supplementation of guanidinoacetic acid to broiler diets: effects on performance, carcass characteristics, meat quality, and energy metabolism.

Creatine, (CREA) a central constituent in energy metabolism, is obtained from dietary animal protein or de novo synthesis from guanidinoacetic acid (GAA). Especially in all-vegetable diets, supplemental CREA or GAA may restore the CREA availability in tissues, and hence, improve performance. In this study, 768 one-d-old male Ross 308 broilers were assigned to 1 of 4 diets: negative control, all-vegetable corn-soybean-based; negative control supplemented with either 0.6 or 1.2 g of GAA per kilogram of feed; and positive control (60, 30, and 30 g/kg of fish meal in the starter, grower, and finisher diets, respectively). Each treatment was replicated in 6 pens of 32 birds each. At the end of the grower period (d 26), 2 birds per pen were euthanized for metabolic measurements. Four broilers per pen were selected at slaughter age (d 39) to determine carcass characteristics and meat quality. Compared with the negative control, GAA supplementation resulted in an improved gain:feed ratio (P < 0.05) and ADG (P < 0.05; + 2.7 and + 2.2% for GAA at 0.6 and 1.2 g/kg, respectively) throughout the entire period. Breast meat yield was higher for the GAA diets compared with that of the negative control birds (P < 0.05; 30.6 vs. 29.4%) and was comparable with that of the positive control birds (30.2%). With regard to meat quality, lower ultimate pH values, higher cooking and press fluid losses, and higher color L* values were observed for the GAA diets compared with those of the negative control diet (P < 0.05). These effects were small, however. The GAA and CREA levels in breast meat were lower and higher, respectively, in GAA-fed birds compared with those of the control birds (P < 0.01). The diets did not affect plasma metabolic traits, except that plasma insulin-like growth factor I concentrations were almost twice as high in animals fed 1.2 g/kg of GAA compared with those of all other treatments. The GAA included in all-vegetable diets improved animal performance for the whole rearing period and increased breast meat yield.

Amino acid digestibility in heated soybean meal fed to growing pigs.

Heat treatment of soybean meal (SBM) is necessary to reduce the concentration of trypsin inhibitors, but excessive heat treatment may reduce AA concentration and digestibility because AA can be destroyed by the Maillard reaction. The objective of this experiment was to determine the effects of heat treatment of SBM on apparent ileal digestibility and standardized ileal digestibility (SID) of AA by growing pigs. A source of conventional dehulled SBM (48.5% CP) was divided into 4 batches. One batch was not additionally heated, 1 batch was autoclaved at 125°C for 15 min, 1 batch was autoclaved at 125°C for 30 min, and 1 batch was oven-dried at 125°C for 30 min. Four SBM-cornstarch diets were formulated, and each of the 4 batches of SBM was used as the sole source of dietary AA in 1 diet. A N-free diet was used to estimate basal endogenous losses of AA. Ten growing barrows with an initial BW of 25.3 ± 2.0 kg were individually fitted with a T-cannula in the distal ileum. Pigs were allotted to treatments in a replicated 5 × 5 balanced Latin square design with 5 diets and 5 periods. Each period lasted 7 d, and ileal digesta were collected on d 6 and 7 of each period. Results of the experiment indicated that the apparent ileal digestibility and SID of CP and all AA decreased linearly (P < 0.01) as the time of autoclaving increased from 0 to 30 min. The concentration of furosine and the color of samples of SBM indicated that autoclaving resulted in a Maillard reaction in the SBM. However, oven drying at 125°C for 30 min did not change (P > 0.10) the SID of CP and AA in the SBM or the furosine concentration, and the color in the oven-dried sample indicated that this sample was not heat damaged. In conclusion, the digestibility of all AA in autoclaved SBM is linearly reduced as the autoclaving time increases from 0 to 30 min. The reason for these changes is most likely that autoclaving at 125°C results in Maillard reactions in SBM.

Estimating digestible methionine requirements for laying hens using multivariate nonlinear mixed effect models.

The purpose of this paper was to develop a unified framework for analyzing dose-response data in farm animals and apply it to meta-analysis of digestible Met requirement studies in laying hens. A database containing Met dose-response data from 23 trials originating from 15 peer-reviewed publications was constructed. A multivariate nonlinear mixed effects model was chosen as the statistical framework to model egg mass (g/d) and feed utilization (%) responses simultaneously. The framework accounted for responses being correlated in both the random effects and the errors, which provided a superior fit to data compared with modeling these separately. The framework was implemented in the NLMIXED procedure in SAS and could accommodate different dose-response functions per response. Three different dose-response functions-the linear broken line, quadratic plateau, and monomolecular functions-were used to identify the best-performing function. The statistical model, which used the quadratic plateau as the functional base for both responses, provided the best fit to data; hence, it was used for biological inference. Effects of secondary covariates of nutritional, genetic, and experimental design origin were investigated, and a systematic trend across studies was detected. The BW of the hens accounted for the majority of the between-study variability by allowing the asymptotic responses to be dependent on the BW. The final estimate of the Met requirement for maximizing egg mass was 356 (SE = 6.1) mg/d, whereas the corresponding Met requirement for maximizing feed utilization was significantly higher (P < 0.001), at 390 (SE = 11) mg/d. Thus, it can be concluded that the biological requirement for digestible Met is at least 356 mg/d. When multiple responses are collected in dose-response studies, these should preferably be analyzed simultaneously because the requirements are established within the same statistical model that accounts for correlation among the errors and among the random effects associated with distinct responses in the model.

Effects of amino acids on egg number and egg mass of brown (heavy breed) and white (light breed) laying hens.

Different types (light to heavy) of laying hens are used in practice. There are questions about the optimum level of balanced protein (BP) supply in feed for different types of hens. Therefore, a broad range of amino acids intake levels [550 to 800 mg of true fecal digestible (TFD) Lys/hen per d] was tested on heavy (Lohmann Brown Classic) and light (Lohmann LSL Classic) laying hens from 24 to 60 wk of age. The other indispensable amino acids were fed in fixed ratios to TFD Lys in all treatments. A total of 282 Lohmann Brown Classic and 282 Lohmann LSL Classic hens (24 wk of age) were divided into 12 experimental groups (individually housed) based on daily egg mass production and BW. Replicates of the heavy strain started with a similar average daily egg mass production (51.1 g/hen per d), laying percentage (95.9%), and hen weight (1,860 g). Replicates of the light strain started with a similar average daily egg mass production (52.0 g/hen per d), laying percentage (97.3%), and hen weight (1,478 g). Diets were fed restrictively with an aimed feed intake of 110 g/hen per day [308 kcal/hen per d of AME(n (layers))] and 100 g/hen per day [280 kcal/hen per d of AME(n (layers))] for heavy and light hens, respectively, to achieve the required BP intake levels. For light hens, a BP intake with 600 mg of TFD Lys was sufficient for optimal laying percentage, whereas maximum laying percentage was not achieved with the highest TFD Lys in heavy hens. For egg weight, daily egg mass production as well as feed conversion regression analysis revealed that asymptotes were not achieved with the highest amino acid levels in both layer strains.

Dynamics of yolk sac content absorption and intestine development in ducklings fed mixtures with increasing dietary methionine level.

The experiment was carried out with ducklings fed-control feed mixture (Met level 0.3%) and mixtures supplemented with dl-methionine at the dose of 0.03 (II); 0.07 (III) 0.12 (IV) and 0.18% (V). In 5 h post-hatch (12 birds) and on days 3, 4, 6 always 18 birds were taken out from each treatment and killed, then the yolk sac (YS) and intestine were removed. The weight and chemical composition of YS residues (in them also amino acids) were analysed. Moreover on days 1, 3, 4 and 6, the amino acid pattern of YS residual protein was elaborated as well as length and weight of intestine were recorded. Increased doses of supplemental Met improved body weight gain after 4 days of ducklings life. All determined parameters were not affected by treatment. Development of intestines, yolk sac weight and yolk sac composition (DM, fat, protein, amino acid composition) changed with age; however, without any clear effect from dietary methionine level. No differences between sex and analysed parameters were stated.

Effect of increased methionine level on performance and apparent ileal digestibility of amino acids in ducks.

The experiment was conducted with 960 one-day-old ducklings fed mixtures (I control - 0.28% methionine) additionally supplemented with DL-methionine (DL-Met) at amounts: 0.03% (group II), 0.07% (III), 0.12% (IV) and 0.18% (V). The performance, carcass quality and apparent ileal digestibility of amino acids as the criterions of methionine (Met) effectivity were considered. The analysis of growth and development of ducks as an effect of diversified DL-Met supplements indicate that increased content of this amino acid in the diets has not affected clearly the performance parameters. The body weight of 21-day-old ducklings was significantly affected only by the level of 0.12% of added Met in comparison to control group. On day 42, the differences among groups were negligible; only the addition of 0.12% DL-Met has increased the body weight by 2.4% when compared with control (p > 0.05). Feed conversion estimated for a period of 1-42 days has not been influenced by Met supplementation. The indistinct, however, visible tendency of better ileal amino acids' apparent digestibility (for Asp.a.,Thr, Ser, Glu, Lys) was noted in the groups fed supplemented diets. Application of 0.07% and 0.18% of DL-met, has significantly (p < 0.05) improved the coefficient of cysteine (Cys) apparent ileal digestibility; however, the improvement of Met apparent ileal digestibility has been achieved by the addition of 0.18% Met. The mortality of ducklings in the experiment was very low and varied between 3.15% (II) and 0.0% (groups I and III). In general, application of 0.12% of DL-Met to mixture containing 0.28% Met had positive effect on the productive output of birds and also improved the apparent ileal digestibility of Cys and Met.

Meta-analysis of the relative efficiency of methionine-hydroxy-analogue-free-acid compared with DL-methionine in broilers using nonlinear mixed models.

The purpose of this paper was to perform a meta-analysis to compare the biological efficiency of DL-methionine with methionine-hydroxy-analogue-free-acid in broiler chickens. A database was developed which contained dose-response studies of these 2 methionine sources. Criteria for entry into the database were defined before the meta-analysis was initiated. Data from 46 dose-response experiments, extracted from a total of 27 peer-reviewed papers, were used for the analysis with the Statistical Analysis System. Initially, the NLIN procedure was applied to fit an exponential model of the form y = alpha + beta*[1 - exp (-Gamma*dose)] + e. Thereafter, meta-analysis was conducted by means of nonlinear mixed models, which were fitted by a full maximum likelihood method as implemented in the NLMIXED procedure. The nonlinear model used for the analysis allowed for separate plateaus or different efficiencies of the methionine sources. Mixed modeling was applied to account for heterogeneity among the studies in all regression parameters for both sources of methionine via random effects. Statistical hypotheses were tested by the asymptotic Wald test. In addition, potential co-variables were tested for inclusion as linear regressors for the nonlinear model parameters. In conclusion, the null hypothesis of equal plateaus of the 2 methionine sources was not rejected. The analyses of the response variables average daily gain (ADG) and gain to feed ratio (GF) showed a highly significant difference between the tested methionine sources. The covariate age at start of experiment significantly affected the intercept term alpha for the response variables ADG and GF, respectively. The meta-analysis showed that biological efficiencies of DL-methionine-hydroxy-analogue-free-acid were 81 and 79% of the values for DL-methionine, on an equimolar basis, for ADG and GF, respectively.

Response of male BUT big 6 turkeys to varying amino acid feeding programs.

Dietary protein is a major cost contributor in turkey nutrition. Therefore, a feeding trial with male BUT Big 6 turkeys to 154 d of age was conducted to examine how live performance and economics are affected when dietary amino acid levels are altered in different phases. Six dietary treatments were run with treatment 1 as the control in which balanced protein levels were according to recommendations during all 6 phases. Treatments 2 through 6 used combinations of balanced protein (based on lysine) that ranged from 90 to 120% of those used in treatment 1. The combinations for the 6 phases of feeding were 120, 120, 120, 120, 90, and 90% for treatment 2; 120, 120, 120, 100, 90, and 90% for treatment 3; 120, 120, 100, 100, 90, and 90% for treatment 4; 120, 120, 120, 120, 100, and 100% for treatment 5; and 90, 90, 90, 100, 100, and 100 for treatment 6. Final BW was highest in treatment 4 and lowest in treatment 2 (P < 0.05), whereas final BW were intermediate and statistically not different in treatments 1, 3, 5, and 6. Breast meat yield was highest in treatment 5 and lowest in treatments 2 and 3 (P < 0.05). Mortality seemed to be reduced in treatment 6 compared with treatments 2, 3, and 5 (P < 0.10). Performance data in combination with economic simulations suggested that the feeding regimens of treatments 4 or 6 might be alternative strategies to treatment 1 to improve overall profitability.

Responses of male growing broilers to increasing levels of balanced protein offered as coarse mash or pellets of varying quality.

Two experiments with 14- to 35-d-old male broilers were performed to investigate the interactions between increasing levels of balanced protein (BP; 9.7, 10.7, 11.7, and 12.7 g of digestible Lys/kg of feed) and physical feed form. In Experiment 1 diets were offered as coarse mash and pellets of either good or poor quality. Good pellet quality was characterized by high durability. In Experiment 2 diets were offered as good quality pellets or coarse mash. However, for the latter particle size, distribution either was kept constant with increasing BP or changed with increasing proportion of soybean meal. Feed intake generally decreased with increasing BP; however, feed intake was highest in good pellets fed to broilers and lowest in mash fed to birds. Although there was only a small response on weight gain in mash-fed birds, feed conversion improved substantially for all feed forms with increasing BP. Particle size distribution did not affect this effect. Highest weight gain was achieved with good pellets; to achieve similar performance with poor pellet quality, higher levels of BP were needed. Carcass evaluation suggested increasing breast meat yield and particularly decreasing fat accretion with increasing BP. Results of both experiments indicate that optimum dietary amino acid levels for growing broilers may vary among different physical feed forms.

Effects of different dietary ideal protein levels on male and female broiler performance during different phases of life: single phase effects, carryover effects, and interactions between phases.

Several experiments in which the dietary ideal protein (IP) levels were increased indicate that with current IP recommendations the maximum performance of broilers will not be achieved. However, available data of this IP-increment approach is scarce and, for the starter phase, entirely lacking. The objective of the present study, therefore, was to generate data regarding the effects in the starter phase and to test the impact of adequate vs. high IP levels in preceding phases on the response to IP increment in the phase under study. To evaluate this, an IP dose response in the starter phase and factorial arrangements combining adequate or high IP levels in starter and grower diets with low, adequate, or high IP levels in finisher diets were carried out with male and female broilers. Enhanced dietary IP levels in the starter diet increased BW gain in the starter phase and in the consecutive grower phase. Moreover, it was shown that a delay in BW gain due to suboptimal IP levels in the starter diet could only be partly compensated for in later phases of life. These results demonstrate the need for a reevaluation of IP levels used in practical starter diets. Feed conversion efficiency and BW gain responses to increased IP levels in the grower and finisher diets were less pronounced when high compared with adequate IP levels were fed in the preceding phase. This difference in response could not be detected statistically but was consistent between experiments and phases. Therefore, this phenomenon should not simply be neglected.

Effect of different dietary ideal protein concentrations on broiler performance.

1. The aim of the study was to examine the response of male broilers of different age categories to different dietary ideal protein (IP) concentrations and to compare the effects to IP recommendations based on single lysine (Lys) requirement studies from the literature. 2. Two experiments were carried out, in which diets containing different IP concentrations (9.0 to 14.4g apparent faecal digestible (AFD) Lys/kg) were fed to male broilers from 14 to 34 (Exp. 1) and 28 to 41 d of age (Exp. 2). The diets (12.88MJ AMEN/kg) were prepared by the dilution technique. The effect of dietary IP concentrations on weight gain, feed intake, feed conversion efficiency (FCE) and slaughter characteristics were studied in both experiments. 3. In Exp. 1, weight gain and FCE increased linearly and fat concentration in the carcase decreased with increasing IP concentration. In Exp. 2, weight gain and FCE improved exponentially, whereas breast meat yield improved linearly with increasing dietary IP concentration. On the basis of these results, it was concluded that the weight gain and FCE of male broilers respond to higher dietary IP levels than would be expected from single lysine requirement studies in the literature.

Responses of growing broilers to diets with increased sulfur amino acids to lysine ratios at two dietary protein levels.

An experiment with 1,440 male Cobb 500 and 1,440 male Ross 308 broilers (14 to 35 d of age) was conducted to investigate the effects of diets having 4 levels of digestible methionine plus cysteine (SAA) on various performance criteria at 2 dietary protein levels (20.5 and 26.0%). Two corn-soybean meal/poultry by-product basal diets were formulated to contain 3,060 kcal/kg MEn and either 20.5 or 26.0% balanced protein, and 1.12 and 1.46% digestible (according to table values) lysine, respectively. Except for SAA, the ratios between essential amino acids were kept identical in both diets according to the ideal protein concept. The ratio between digestible SAA and digestible Lys was 50%. All remaining nutrients met or exceeded NRC (1994) recommendations. Graded levels of SAA were supplemented to obtain digestible SAA to Lys ratios of 62, 69, and 77%, with 77% representing an optimized amino acid balance. Increasing the protein level clearly improved weight gain, feed conversion, breast meat yield, and abdominal fat content. Increasing SAA levels resulted in strong nonlinear or linear dose responses at both protein levels and for both strains. Regression analysis suggested that reducing digestible SAA in a balanced protein (diets with SAA:Lys of 77%) impairs performance, and that optimum SAA:Lys ratio for growing broilers might be higher than 77%, although ANOVA revealed no significant improvement with an SAA:Lys ratio higher than 69%. Responses provide evidence that optimum dietary SAA level depends on dietary protein level and should therefore be related to the protein content.

Relative effectiveness of methionine hydroxy analog compared to DL-methionine in broiler chickens.

Two broiler experiments were conducted to assess the relative bioefficacy of liquid DL-Met hydroxy analog-free acid (MHA-FA) and DL-Met (DLM). Exponential regression analysis was used to determine biological efficacy based on body weight, feed conversion, and carcass responses to dietary Met source. In Trial 1, four graded inclusion levels of DLM and liquid MHA-FA (0.06, 0.12, 0.18, and 0.24%) were each added to a basal diet that met the nutrient and energy requirements of broiler chickens, with the exception of Met + Cys. In four additional treatments, diluted DLM (65%) was added at the same supplementation levels as pure DLM and liquid MHA-FA. In the 42-d trial, broilers responded significantly (P < 0.05) to the supplements. Regression analysis revealed that liquid MHA-FA was 68% (weight gain), 67% (feed conversion), 62% (carcass yield), and 64% (breast meat yield) as efficacious as pure DLM on an as-fed basis. Responses to liquid MHA-FA and diluted DLM were very similar at corresponding supplementation levels. Diluted DLM as an internal standard confirmed that exponential regression analysis was a statistically valid technique for determination of the relative efficacy of nutrient sources. In Trial 2, five graded inclusion levels of each DLM (0.040, 0.091, 0.152, 0.222, and 0.303%) and liquid MHA-FA (0.045, 0.102, 0.170, 0.250, and 0.350%) were added to a basal diet limiting in Met + Cys but adequate in all other nutrients and energy. Liquid MHA-FA was 72% (weight gain), 51% (feed conversion), 48% (carcass yield), and 60% (breast yield) as efficacious as DLM on a weight-for-weight basis.