Effectiveness of oestrogen pretreatment in patients with expected poor ovarian response (POSEIDON groups 3 and 4) undergoing GnRH antagonist protocol: study protocol for a randomised controlled trial.

INTRODUCTION: Women characterised by diminished ovarian reserve are considered to have poor ovarian response (POR) according to Patient-Oriented Strategies Encompassing IndividualizeD Oocyte Number (POSEIDON) criteria. Patients in this population often have a poor prognosis for treatment with assisted reproductive technology. In previous studies, oestrogen pretreatment before ovarian stimulation has been shown to have a beneficial effect. However, recent studies presented conflicting conclusions. This study aims to evaluate the effectiveness of oestrogen pretreatment in patients with expected POR (POSEIDON groups 3 and 4) undergoing gonadotrophin releasing hormone antagonist (GnRH-ant) protocol. METHODS AND ANALYSIS: A prospective superiority randomised parallel controlled trial will be conducted at a tertiary university-affiliated hospital. A total of 316 patients will be randomly divided into two groups at a ratio of 1:1. In the intervention group, oral oestrogen pretreatment will be administered from day 7 after ovulation until day 2 of the next menstrual cycle. Afterwards, a flexible GnRH-ant protocol will be initiated. The control group will receive no additional intervention beyond routine ovarian stimulation. The primary outcome is the number of oocytes retrieved. Secondary outcomes include the total number of retrieved metaphase II oocytes, average daily dose of gonadotropin, total gonadotropin dose and duration of ovarian stimulation, cycle cancellation rate, top quality embryos rate, blastocyst formation rate, embryo implantation rate, clinical pregnancy rate, early miscarriage rate and endometrial thickness on trigger day. All data will be analysed according to the intention-to-treat and per-protocol principles. ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION: The ethical approval has been confirmed by the reproductive ethics committee of the affiliated hospital of Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine (SDUTCM/2022.9.20). In addition, written informed consent will be obtained from all the participants before the study. The results will be disseminated via publications. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER: ChiCTR2200064812.

Grb2 interacts with necrosome components and is involved in rasfonin-induced necroptosis.

The underlying mechanism by which growth factor receptor-bound protein 2 (Grb2) regulates necroptosis remains unexplored. In the present study, we found that rasfonin, a fungal natural product and an activator of necroptosis, enhanced Grb2 binding to receptor-interacting serine/threonine kinase 1 (RIP1), which plays a critical role in regulating programmed necrosis. Moreover, we observed that SQSTM/p62 (p62), a protein that can form necrosomes with RIP1, increased its interaction with Grb2 upon rasfonin challenge. Although it has been used as an activator of autophagy in our previous study, here we found that a high dose of rasfonin was able to inhibit autophagic process. Inhibition of RIP1 either chemically or genetically reversed the inhibition of rasfonin on autophagy, whereas knockdown of Grb2 markedly reduced rasfonin-induced necrosis. Additionally, we found that the compound failed to upregulate the expression of RIP1 in Grb2-deprived cells. In summary, our data revealed that Grb2 actively participated in rasfonin-induced necroptosis by interacting with the components of necrosome and mediating their expression.

The unique Akt inhibitor SC66 suppressed AMPK activity and abolished autophagy through the EGFR-p62 pathway.

Akt is usually considered to be a negative regulator of both autophagy and adenosine 5'-monophosphate (AMP)-activated protein kinase (AMPK) signaling. In the present study, we found that SC66, a pyridine-based allosteric Akt inhibitor, suppressed basal and H2 O2 -induced autophagy concurrent with decreased phosphorylation and activity of AMPK. SC66 treatment led to the formation of a high molecular weight (HMW) form of SQSTM1/p62 (p62), which is an autophagic substrate and is essential for selective autophagy. Moreover, we observed that SC66 inhibited the binding of p62 and microtubule-associated protein light chain 3 (LC3). The immunoprecipitation results revealed the interaction between p62 and epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), and knockdown of EGFR reversed SC66-mediated autophagy inhibition without affecting the phosphorylation of acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC), a well-known substrate of AMPK. SC66 increased the interaction between EGFR and Beclin 1 and markedly decreased the association of EGFR with VPS34, a critical protein for autophagy induction. Collectively, the data presented here indicate that EGFR-p62 pathway plays a critical role in Akt-mediated positive regulation of autophagy.

A unique cell wall synthetic response evoked by glucosamine determines pathogenicity-associated fungal cellular differentiation.

The yeast-to-hypha transition is tightly associated with pathogenicity in many human pathogenic fungi, such as the model fungal pathogen Cryptococcus neoformans, which is responsible for approximately 180,000 deaths annually. In this pathogen, the yeast-to-hypha transition can be initiated by distinct stimuli: mating stimulation or glucosamine (GlcN), the monomer of cell wall chitosan. However, it remains poorly understood how the signal specificity for Cryptococcus morphological transition by disparate stimuli is ensured. Here, by integrating temporal expression signature analysis and phenome-based clustering evaluation, we demonstrate that GlcN specifically triggers a unique cellular response, which acts as a critical determinant underlying the activation of GlcN-induced filamentation (GIF). This cellular response is defined by an unusually hyperactive cell wall synthesis that is highly ATP-consuming. A novel cell surface protein Gis1 was identified as the indicator molecule for the GlcN-induced cell wall response. The Mpk1-directed cell wall pathway critically bridges global cell wall gene induction and intracellular ATP supply, ensuring the Gis1-dependent cell wall response and the stimulus specificity of GIF. We further reveal that the ability of Mpk1 to coordinate the cell wall response and GIF activation is conserved in different Cryptococcus pathogens. Phosphoproteomics-based profiling together with genetic and phenotypic analysis revealed that the Mpk1 kinase mediates the regulatory specificity of GIF through a coordinated downstream regulatory network centered on Skn7 and Crz1. Overall, our findings discover an unprecedented and conserved cell wall biosynthesis-dependent fungal differentiation commitment mechanism, which enables the signal specificity of pathogenicity-related dimorphism induced by GlcN in Cryptococcus pathogens.

Metabolic engineering of Pseudomonas mendocina NK-01 for enhanced production of medium-chain-length polyhydroxyalkanoates with enriched content of the dominant monomer.

In this study, six genes involved in ß-oxidation pathway of P. mendocina NK-01 were deleted to construct mutant strains NKU-∆ß1 and NKU-∆ß5. Compared with the wild strain NKU, the mcl-PHA titers of NKU-∆ß5 were respectively increased by 5.58- and 4.85-fold for culturing with sodium octanoate and sodium decanoate. And the mcl-PHA titers of NKU-∆ß1 was increased by 10.02-fold for culturing with dodecanoic acid. The contents of dominant monomers 3-hydroxydecanoate (3HD) and 3-hydroxydodecanoate (3HDD) of the mcl-PHA synthesized by NKU-∆ß5 were obviously increased to 90.01 and 58.60 mol%, respectively. Further deletion of genes phaG and phaZ, the 3HD and 3HDD contents were further improved to 94.71 and 68.67 mol%, respectively. The highest molecular weight of mcl-PHA obtained in this study was 80.79 × 104 Da, which was higher than the previously reported mcl-PHA. With the increase of dominant monomer contents, the synthesized mcl-PHA showed better thermal properties, mechanical properties and crystallization properties. Interestingly, the cell size of NKU-∆ß5 was larger than that of NKU due to the accumulation of more PHA granules. This study indicated that a systematically metabolic engineering approach for P. mendocina NK-01 could significantly improve the mcl-PHA titer, dominant monomer contents and physical properties of mcl-PHA.

[CircRNA_005647 inhibits expressions of fibrosis-related genes in mouse cardiac fibroblasts via sponging miR-27b-3p].

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the effect of circRNA_005647 on fibrotic phenotype of mouse cardiac fibroblasts (CFs) and explore its mechanism. METHODS: We used an angiotensin Ⅱ (Ang-Ⅱ) capsule pump (daily dose of 1.46 mg/kg for 2 weeks) to establish a mouse model of myocardial fibrosis in C57BL/6 mice. Masson staining was used to detect myocardial fibrosis in the myocardium. The expression of circRNA_005647 in the myocardium of Ang-Ⅱ-infused mice and in Ang-Ⅱ-treated CFs were detected with real-time PCR. Actinomycin D and RNase R exonuclease digestion were used to test the stability of circRNA_005647 in mouse CFs. Over- expression of circRNA_005647 was achieved in the CFs by infecting the cells with a recombinant circRNA_005647 adenovirus (rAd-circRNA_005647), and the expressions of Col1a1, Col3a1 and Acta2 were detected in the cells with real-time PCR and Western blotting. Dual luciferase reporter assay, RNA antisense purification and RNA Pull down assay were performed to identify the interaction between circRNA_005647 and miR-27b-3p. RESULTS: CircRNA_005647 was up- regulated in the myocardium of Ang-Ⅱ- infused mice and in Ang-Ⅱ-treated mouse CFs (P < 0.01). CircRNA_005647 was more stable than its host gene Myosin IXA (Myo9a) in response to actinomycin D (P < 0.01) and RNase R exonuclease treatment. The expressions of fibrosis-associated genes was down-regulated in the CFs over-expressing circRNA_ 005647 (P < 0.05). Dual luciferase reporter assay, RNA antisense purification and RNA Pull down assay revealed the interaction between miR-27b-3p and circRNA_005647. MiR-27b-3p obviously enhanced the fibrotic phenotype but reversed the inhibitory effect of circRNA_005647 on the expression of fibrosis associated genes in the CFs (P < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: CircRNA_005647 is upregulated in cardiac fibrosis and inhibits the expression of fibrosis-related genes through sponging miR-27b-3p in mouse CFs.

The Smad3-miR-29b/miR-29c axis mediates the protective effect of macrophage migration inhibitory factor against cardiac fibrosis.

Although macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF) is known to have antioxidant property, the role of MIF in cardiac fibrosis has not been well understood. We found that MIF was markedly increased in angiotension II (Ang-II)-infused mouse myocardium. Myocardial function was impaired and cardiac fibrosis was aggravated in Mif-knockout (Mif-KO) mice. Functionally, overexpression of MIF and MIF protein could inhibit the expression of fibrosis-associated collagen (Col) 1a1, COL3A1 and α-SMA, and Smad3 activation in mouse cardiac fibroblasts (CFs). Consistently, MIF deficiency could exacerbate the expression of COL1A1, COL3A1 and α-SMA, and Smad3 activation in Ang-II-treated CFs. Interestingly, microRNA-29b-3p (miR-29b-3p) and microRNA-29c-3p (miR-29c-3p) were down-regulated in the myocardium of Ang-II-infused Mif-KO mice but upregulated in CFs with MIF overexpression or by treatment with MIF protein. MiR-29b-3p and miR-29c-3p could suppress the expression of COL1A1, COL3A1 and α-SMA in CFs through targeting the pro-fibrosis genes of transforming growth factor beta-2 (Tgfb2) and matrix metallopeptidase 2 (Mmp2). We further demonstrated that Mif inhibited reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation and Smad3 activation, and rescued the decrease of miR-29b-3p and miR-29c-3p in Ang-II-treated CFs. Smad3 inhibitors, SIS3 and Naringenin, and Smad3 siRNA could reverse the decrease of miR-29b-3p and miR-29c-3p in Ang-II-treated CFs. Taken together, our data demonstrated that the Smad3-miR-29b/miR-29c axis mediates the inhibitory effect of macrophage migration inhibitory factor on cardiac fibrosis.

Rice stripe virus hitchhikes the vector insect vitellogenin ligand-receptor pathway for ovary entry.

It is known that plant arboviruses infect insect vector cells by endocytosis; however, the cellular receptors that mediate endocytosis have not been well defined. In our recently published work and this study, by clarifying the vertical transmission mechanism of Rice stripe virus (RSV) in Laodelphax striatellus, we provide a novel paradigm for how arboviruses enter insect germ-line cells. Instead of direct interaction with a viral receptor, the virus binds to a secreted ligand protein, hitchhiking the ligand-receptor pathway to achieve cell entry. Vitellogenin (Vg) is an indispensable protein for embryo development that is synthesized extra-ovarially and taken up by germ-line cells through Vg receptor (VgR)-mediated endocytosis. After revealing that RSV invades L. striatellus ovary by a specific molecular interaction with the insect Vg in haemolymph, this study addressed VgR's function in mediating the RSV invasion of the germarium nurse cells, further confirming the ligand's receptor-mediated viral cell-invasion mechanism. Understanding the viral ovary-entry pathways in vectors will help to find suitable measures to block the trans-generation transmission of the viruses. This article is part of the theme issue 'Biotic signalling sheds light on smart pest management'.

Novel role of the clustered miR-23b-3p and miR-27b-3p in enhanced expression of fibrosis-associated genes by targeting TGFBR3 in atrial fibroblasts.

Atrial fibrillation (AF) is the most common type of arrhythmia in cardiovascular diseases. Atrial fibrosis is an important pathophysiological contributor to AF. This study aimed to investigate the role of the clustered miR-23b-3p and miR-27b-3p in atrial fibrosis. Human atrial fibroblasts (HAFs) were isolated from atrial appendage tissue of patients with sinus rhythm. A cell model of atrial fibrosis was achieved in Ang-II-induced HAFs. Cell proliferation and migration were detected. We found that miR-23b-3p and miR-27b-3p were markedly increased in atrial appendage tissues of AF patients and in Ang-II-treated HAFs. Overexpression of miR-23b-3p and miR-27b-3p enhanced the expression of collagen, type I, alpha 1 (COL1A1), COL3A1 and ACTA2 in HAFs without significant effects on their proliferation and migration. Luciferase assay showed that miR-23b-3p and miR-27b-3p targeted two different sites in 3'-UTR of transforming growth factor (TGF)-ß1 receptor 3 (TGFBR3) respectively. Consistently, TGFBR3 siRNA could increase fibrosis-related genes expression, along with the Smad1 inactivation and Smad3 activation in HAFs. Additionally, overexpression of TGFBR3 could alleviate the increase of COL1A1, COL3A1 and ACTA2 in HAFs after transfection with miR-23b-3p and miR-27b-3p respectively. Moreover, Smad3 was activated in HAFs in response to Ang-II treatment and inactivation of Smad3 attenuated up-regulation of miR-23b-3p and miR-27b-3p in Ang-II-treated HAFs. Taken together, these results suggest that the clustered miR-23b-3p and miR-27b-3p consistently promote atrial fibrosis by targeting TGFBR3 to activate Smad3 signalling in HAFs, suggesting that miR-23b-3p and miR-27b-3p are potential therapeutic targets for atrial fibrosis.

[MicroRNA-199a-3p enhances expressions of fibrosis-associated genes through targeting Smad1 in mouse cardiac fibroblasts].

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the role of miR-199a-3p in cardiac fibrosis and the potential target of miR-199a-3p. METHODS: Cardiac fibroblasts were isolated from C57BL/6 mice and cultured. The miR-199a-3p mimic and Smad1 siRNA were transiently transfected into the cardiac fibroblasts via liposome. Dual luciferase reporter assay was performed to confirm the interaction between miR-199a-3p and the 3'-UTR of Smad1. The expressions of Smad1 and fibrosis-related genes at the mRNA and protein levels in the cells after miR-199a-3p mimic transfection were determined using RT-qPCR and Western blotting, respectively. The expressions of Smad1, Smad3 and fibrosis-related genes at the protein level in cells transfected with miR-199a-3p mimic and Smad1 siRNA were detected using Western blotting. RESULTS: Over-expression of miR-199a-3p significantly increased the expression of cardiac fibrosis-related genes in cultured mouse cardiac fibroblasts. Dual luciferase reporter assay revealed the interaction of miR-199a-3p with the 3'-UTR of Smad1. The results of RT-qPCR and Western blotting confirmed that miR-199a-3p inhibited Smad1 expression at the post- transcriptional level. Transfection with miR-199a-3p mimic and siRNA-mediated Smad1 silencing consistently activated the Smad3 signaling pathway and enhanced the expressions of cardiac fibrosis-related genes in the cardiac fibroblasts. CONCLUSIONS: As the target gene of miR-199a-3p, Smad1 mediates the pro-fibrotic effect of miR-199a-3p by activating the Smad3 signaling in cultured mouse cardiac fibroblasts.

iTRAQ-based proteomics analysis of autophagy-mediated immune responses against the vascular fungal pathogen Verticillium dahliae in Arabidopsis.

The mechanisms underlying the functional link between autophagy and plant innate immunity remain largely unknown. In this study, we investigated the autophagy-mediated plant defense responses against Verticillium dahliae (V. dahliae) infection by comparative proteomics and cellular analyses. An assessment of the autophagy activity and disease development showed that autophagic processes were tightly related to the tolerance of Arabidopsis plant to Verticillium wilt. An isobaric tags for relative and absolute quantification (iTRAQ)-based proteomics analysis was performed, and we identified a total of 780 differentially accumulated proteins (DAPs) between wild-type and mutant atg10-1 Arabidopsis plants upon V. dahliae infection, of which, 193 ATG8-family-interacting proteins were identified in silico and their associations with autophagy were verified for several selected proteins. Three important aspects of autophagy-mediated defense against V. dahliae infection were revealed: 1) autophagy is required for the activation of upstream defense responses; 2) autophagy-mediated mitochondrial degradation (mitophagy) occurs and is an important player in the defense process; and 3) autophagy promotes the transdifferentiation of perivascular cells and the formation of xylem hyperplasia, which are crucial for protection against this vascular disease. Together, our results provide several novel insights for understanding the functional association between autophagy and plant immune responses.

Combinatorial metabolic engineering of Pseudomonas putida KT2440 for efficient mineralization of 1,2,3-trichloropropane.

An industrial waste, 1,2,3-trichloropropane (TCP), is toxic and extremely recalcitrant to biodegradation. To date, no natural TCP degraders able to mineralize TCP aerobically have been isolated. In this work, we engineered a biosafety Pseudomonas putida strain KT2440 for aerobic mineralization of TCP by implantation of a synthetic biodegradation pathway into the chromosome and further improved TCP mineralization using combinatorial engineering strategies. Initially, a synthetic pathway composed of haloalkane dehalogenase, haloalcohol dehalogenase and epoxide hydrolase was functionally assembled for the conversion of TCP into glycerol in P. putida KT2440. Then, the growth lag-phase of using glycerol as a growth precursor was eliminated by deleting the glpR gene, significantly enhancing the flux of carbon through the pathway. Subsequently, we improved the oxygen sequestering capacity of this strain through the heterologous expression of Vitreoscilla hemoglobin, which makes this strain able to mineralize TCP under oxygen-limited conditions. Lastly, we further improved intracellular energy charge (ATP/ADP ratio) and reducing power (NADPH/NADP+ ratio) by deleting flagella-related genes in the genome of P. putida KT2440. The resulting strain (named KTU-TGVF) could efficiently utilize TCP as the sole source of carbon for growth. Degradation studies in a bioreactor highlight the value of this engineered strain for TCP bioremediation.

Detection and differentiation of influenza viruses with glycan-functionalized gold nanoparticles.

Accurate diagnosis of influenza viruses is difficult and generally requires a complex process because of viral diversity and rapid mutability. In this study, we report a simple and rapid strategy for the detection and differentiation of influenza viruses using glycan-functionalized gold nanoparticles (gGNPs). This method is based on the aggregation of gGNP probes on the viral surface, which is mediated by the specific binding of the virus to the glycans. Using a set of gGNPs bearing different glycan structures, fourteen influenza virus strains, including the major subtypes currently circulating in human and avian populations, were readily differentiated from each other and from a human respiratory syncytial virus in a single-step colorimetric procedure. The results presented here demonstrate the potential of this gGNP-based system in the development of convenient and portable sensors for the clinical diagnosis and surveillance of influenza viruses.

Chelatococcus reniformis sp. nov., isolated from a glacier.

A Gram-stain-negative, non-motile, reniform bacterial strain, B2974T, was isolated from an ice core of the Muztagh Glacier, on the Tibetan Plateau, China. Strain B2974T grew optimally at pH 7.0-7.5 and 25-30 °C in the presence of 0-2.0 % (w/v) NaCl. 16S rRNA gene sequence similarity analysis indicated that strain B2974T was closely related to Chelatococcus asaccharovorans LMG 25503T at a level of 97.1 %. The major quinone of strain B2974T was ubiquinone Q10. The predominant fatty acids were summed feature 8 (C18 : 1ω7c and/or C18 : 1ω6c) and C19 : 0 cyclo ω8c. sym-Homospermidine was the major polyamine. The genomic DNA G+C content of the strain was 64 mol%. In DNA-DNA hybridization tests, strain B2974T shared 49.32 % DNA-DNA relatedness with the type strain of Chelatococcus asaccharovorans LMG 25503T. Based on the results of phenotypic and chemotaxonomic characteristics, strain B2974T was considered as a novel species of the genus Chelatococcus, for which the name Chelatococcus reniformis sp. nov. is proposed. The type strain is B2974T (=JCM 30308T=CGMCC 1.12919T).

Effect of long-term weightlessness on retina and optic nerve in tail-suspension rats.

AIM: To evaluate the effect of long-term weightlessness on retina and optic nerve in tail-suspension (TS) rats. METHODS: A stimulated weightlessness model was established by suspending rats' tail. After 12wk, the ultrastructure and the number of optic nerve axons were observed by transmission electron microscope. The number of survival retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) was calculated by fluorescent gold retrograde labeling. Retina cells apoptosis was detected by TUNEL staining. The function of optic nerve and retina was evaluated by the visual evoked potential (VEP) and oscillatory potentials (Ops). RESULTS: The optic nerve axons were swollen and sparsely aligned, and the lamellar separation and myelin disintegration occurred after 12wk in TS rats. The density of optic nerve axons was 32.23±3.92 (vs 37.43±4.13, P=0.0145), the RGCs density was 1645±46 cells/mm(2) (vs 1867±54 cells/mm(2) P=0.0000), the incidence rate of retinal cells apoptosis was 5.38%±0.53% (vs 4.75%±0.54%, P=0.0238), the amplitude of VEP-P100 was 15.43±2.14 µV (vs 17.67±2.17 µV, P=0.0424), the latency of VEP-P100 was 69.05±5.34ms (vs 62.43±4.87ms P=0.0143) and the sum amplitude of Ops was 81.05±8.34 µV (vs 91.67±10.21 µV, P=0.0280) in TS group and the control group, respectively. CONCLUSION: Long-term weightlessness can induce the ultrastructural changes and functional depress of the optic nerve, as well as retinal cell damages in TS rats.

Demonstrating approaches to chemically modify the surface of Ag nanoparticles in order to influence their cytotoxicity and biodistribution after single dose acute intravenous administration.

With the advance in material science and the need to diversify market applications, silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) are modified by different surface coatings. However, how these surface modifications influence the effects of AgNPs on human health is still largely unknown. We have evaluated the uptake, toxicity and pharmacokinetics of AgNPs coated with citrate, polyethylene glycol, polyvinyl pyrolidone and branched polyethyleneimine (Citrate AgNPs, PEG AgNPs, PVP AgNPs and BPEI AgNPs, respectively). Our results demonstrated that the toxicity of AgNPs depends on the intracellular localization that was highly dependent on the surface charge. BPEI AgNPs (ζ potential = +46.5 mV) induced the highest cytotoxicity and DNA fragmentation in Hepa1c1c7. In addition, it showed the highest damage to the nucleus of liver cells in the exposed mice, which is associated with a high accumulation in liver tissues. The PEG AgNPs (ζ potential = -16.2 mV) showed the cytotoxicity, a long blood circulation, as well as bioaccumulation in spleen (34.33 µg/g), which suggest better biocompatibility compared to the other chemically modified AgNPs. Moreover, the adsorption ability with bovine serum albumin revealed that the PEG surface of AgNPs has an optimal biological inertia and can effectively resist opsonization or non-specific binding to protein in mice. The overall results indicated that the biodistribution of AgNPs was significantly dependent on surface chemistry: BPEI AgNPs > Citrate AgNPs = PVP AgNPs > PEG AgNPs. This toxicological data could be useful in supporting the development of safe AgNPs for consumer products and drug delivery applications.

Ethylenediamine pretreatment changes cellulose allomorph and lignin structure of lignocellulose at ambient pressure.

BACKGROUND: Pretreatment of lignocellulosic biomass is essential to increase the cellulase accessibility for bioconversion of lignocelluloses by breaking down the biomass recalcitrance. In this work, a novel pretreatment method using ethylenediamine (EDA) was presented as a simple process to achieve high enzymatic digestibility of corn stover (CS) by heating the biomass-EDA mixture with high solid-to-liquid ratio at ambient pressure. The effect of EDA pretreatment on lignocellulose was further studied. RESULTS: High enzymatic digestibility of CS was achieved at broad pretreatment temperature range (40-180 °C) during EDA pretreatment. Herein, X-ray diffractogram analysis indicated that cellulose I changed to cellulose III and amorphous cellulose after EDA pretreatment, and cellulose III content increased along with the decrease of drying temperature and the increase of EDA loading. Lignin degradation was also affected by drying temperature and EDA loading. Images from scanning electron microscope and transmission electron microscope indicated that lignin coalesced and deposited on the biomass surface during EDA pretreatment, which led to the delamination of cell wall. HSQC NMR analysis showed that ester bonds of p-coumarate and ferulate units in lignin were partially ammonolyzed and ether bonds linking the phenolic monomers were broken during pretreatment. In addition, EDA-pretreated CS exhibited good fermentability for simultaneous saccharification and co-fermentation process. CONCLUSIONS: EDA pretreatment improves the enzymatic digestibility of lignocellulosic biomass significantly, and the improvement was caused by the transformation of cellulose allomorph, lignin degradation and relocalization in EDA pretreatment.

In vitro antifungal activity and mechanism of essential oil from fennel (Foeniculum vulgare L.) on dermatophyte species.

Fennel seed essential oil (FSEO) is a plant-derived natural therapeutic against dermatophytes. In this study, the antifungal effects of FSEO were investigated from varied aspects, such as MIC and minimum fungicidal concentration, mycelia growth, spore germination and biomass. The results indicated that FSEO had potent antifungal activities on Trichophyton rubrum ATCC 40051, Trichophyton tonsurans 10-0400, Microsporum gypseum 44693-1 and Trichophyton mentagrophytes 10-0060, which is better than the commonly used antifungal agents fluconazole and amphotericin B. Flow cytometry and transmission electron microscopy experiments suggested that the antifungal mechanism of FSEO was to damage the plasma membrane and intracellular organelles. Further study revealed that it could also inhibit the mitochondrial enzyme activities, such as succinate dehydrogenase, malate dehydrogenase and ATPase. With better antifungal activity than the commonly used antifungal agents and less possibility of inducing drug resistance, FSEO could be used as a potential antidermatophytic agent.

The natural product citral can cause significant damage to the hyphal cell walls of Magnaporthe grisea.

In order to find a natural alternative to the synthetic fungicides currently used against the devastating rice blast fungus, Magnaporthe grisea, this study explored the antifungal potential of citral and its mechanism of action. It was found that citral not only inhibited hyphal growth of M. grisea, but also caused a series of marked hyphal morphological and structural alterations. Specifically, citral was tested for antifungal activity against M. grisea in vitro and was found to significantly inhibit colony development and mycelial growth with IC50 and IC90 values of 40.71 and 203.75 µg/mL, respectively. Furthermore, citral reduced spore germination and germ tube length in a concentration-dependent manner. Following exposure to citral, the hyphal cell surface became wrinkled with folds and cell breakage that were observed under scanning electron microscopy (SEM). There was damage to hyphal cell walls and membrane structures, loss of villous-like material outside of the cell wall, thinning of the cell wall, and discontinuities formed in the cell membrane following treatment based on transmission electron microscopy (TEM). This increase in chitinase activity both supports the morphological changes seen in the hyphae, and also suggests a mechanism of action. In conclusion, citral has strong antifungal properties, and treatment with this compound is capable of causing significant damage to the hyphal cell walls of M. grisea.

The Aspergillus fumigatus ß-1,3-glucanosyltransferase Gel7 plays a compensatory role in maintaining cell wall integrity under stress conditions.

Aspergillus fumigatus is an opportunistic fungal pathogen that causes fatal invasive aspergillosis among immunocompromised patients. The cell wall ß-1,3-glucan is mainly elongated by ß-1,3-glucanosyltransferase Gel family, which is vital for growth and virulence of A. fumigatus. Although seven members of Gels have been annotated, only Gel1, Gel2 and Gel4 were characterized. In this study, the function of Gel7 was analyzed for the first time, by constructing Δgel7, Δgel7Δcwh41 and Δgel1Δgel7Δcwh41 separately. Disruption of gel7 alone did not result in any obvious phenotype except an abnormality in conidia formation, whereas Δgel7Δcwh41 and Δgel1Δgel7Δcwh41 exhibited abnormal conidiogenesis, a heat-induced delay of germination and a severe decrease in ß-1,3-glucan content. Our results suggested that the A. fumigatus ß-1,3-glucanosyltransferase Gel7 was involved in conidiation and was compensated for the cell wall ß-1,3-glucan defects when Gel1 and Gel2 lost their functions, especially at an elevated temperature.