Systematic Review of the Effects of Sparkling Water Consumption on Blood Pressure.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: At present, almost all national health agencies and professional societies recommend reducing dietary sodium to lower blood pressure and prevent cardiovascular disease and stroke. The scientific community has questioned these recommendations multiple times. However, the institutions have clarified that the evidence supporting the reduction of sodium intake remains strong. This review is an examination of the literature on the impact of carbonated water consumption on the blood pressure of hypertensive patients RECENT FINDINGS: Current literature focuses on the act of ingestion and the immediate post-consumption periods, highlighting the significant role of the nervous system on blood pressure increase. This differs from earlier literature, which predominantly focused on hypotheses surrounding the nutritional components responsible for elevated blood pressure Research findings remains uncertainty regarding whether hypertensive patients should avoid the consumption of sparkling water. To contextualize these results, we discuss potential physiological mechanisms, recommendations from relevant organizations, and variations in methodologies and study designs. In conclusion, the question of whether hypertensive patients should steer clear of sparkling water remains unanswered.

Precooling via immersion in CO2-enriched water at 25°C decreased core body temperature but did not improve 10-km cycling time trial in the heat.

This study compared the effects of precooling via whole-body immersion in 25°C CO2-enriched water (CO2WI), 25°C unenriched water (WI) or no cooling (CON) on 10-km cycling time trial (TT) performance. After 30 min of precooling (CO2WI, CON, WI) in a randomized, crossover manner, 11 male cyclists/triathletes completed 30-min submaximal cycling (65%VO2peak), followed by 10-km TT in the heat (35°C, 65% relative humidity). Average power output and performance time during TT were similar between conditions (p = 0.387 to 0.833). Decreases in core temperature (Tcore) were greater in CO2WI (-0.54 ± 0.25°C) than in CON (-0.32 ± 0.09°C) and WI (-0.29 ± 0.20°C, p = 0.011 to 0.022). Lower Tcore in CO2WI versus CON was observed at 15th min of exercise (p = 0.050). Skin temperature was lower in CO2WI and WI than in CON during the exercise (p < 0.001 to 0.031). Only CO2WI (1029 ± 305 mL) decreased whole-body sweat loss compared with CON (1304 ± 246 mL, p = 0.029). Muscle oxygenation by near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS), thermal sensation, and thermal comfort were lower in CO2WI and WI versus CON only during precooling (p < 0.001 to 0.041). NIRS-derived blood volume was significantly lower in CO2WI and WI versus CON during exercise (p < 0.001 to 0.022). Heart rate (p = 0.998) and rating of perceived exertion (p = 0.924) did not differ between conditions throughout the experiment. These results suggested that CO2WI maybe more effective than WI for enhanced core body cooling and minimized sweat losses.

Evaluation of a Sparkling Water Promotion Intervention on Sales at Convenience Stores in the Southeastern US.

OBJECTIVE: This study investigated the feasibility of in-store signage promoting sparkling water and the impact of this signage on sparkling water sales in convenience stores. DESIGN: We conducted a randomized control trial. SETTING: Convenience stores in North Carolina. PARTICIPANTS: Twenty-four convenience stores in neighborhoods with a higher proportion of Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program-eligible households. INTERVENTION(S): The 24 eligible stores were randomized to receive the in-store signage promoting sparkling water or to the control condition of no change. One poster was hung on the beverage cooler doors in front of the sparkling water selections at each of the 12 participating stores. Weekly sales data and fidelity checks were collected. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S): The primary outcome measure was sales of total water, and the subanalysis was sales of sparkling water. ANALYSIS: T tests were conducted to assess changes in total water and sparkling water sales between intervention and control stores. RESULTS: In-store signage did not significantly increase sales of sparkling water, or all water, during the intervention. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS: Signage alone may not be enough to impact healthy beverage purchasing, and signage should be paired with other promotional components to increase healthy beverage purchases in convenience stores.

Are Bubbles the Future of Dysphagia Rehabilitation: A Systematic Review Analysing Evidence on the Use of Carbonated Liquids in Dysphagia Rehabilitation.

BACKGROUND: Dysphagia poses a huge health issue in our ageing population, impacting patients psychologically and through risk of aspiration, malnutrition and airway obstruction. The use of carbonated liquids to provide sensory enhancement as a tool to stimulate neuromuscular activity in dysphagia rehabilitation remains an area with limited research. This article reviews current evidence. METHOD: A data search of PubMed, CINAHL, EMBASE and Cochrane was undertaken with set search terms. Abstracts were reviewed and selected by two clinicians according to inclusion criteria and papers were assessed using PRISMA methodology. RESULTS: Selected publications (1992-2022) involved a median of 23 participants with predominantly neurogenic dysphagia. Despite the differences in study designs all used videofluroscopy (VF) to assess outcome measures except Morishita et al. who used fiberoptic endoscopic evaluation of swallow (FEES). The studies were small scale but showed encouraging results. However, there was heterogeneity between results of specific outcome measures. One study surveyed taste which was overall positively received. CONCLUSIONS: There continues to remain limited evidence to direct the use of carbonated liquids in rehabilitation of dysphagia, however its role shows some promise. The heterogeneity of not just study designs but also study participants seems to be a primary barrier. Whilst evidence is encouraging, further prospective studies standardising patient cohorts, methodologies and quantitative outcome measures must be carried out. Longitudinal studies to look at the role of carbonated liquids in secretion management is another area of potential interest. In conclusion the use of carbonated liquid in dysphagia rehabilitation may have a potential role but without firm evidence-based research, successful use in clinical practice cannot be implemented.

Use of Carbonated Water as Kneading in Mortars Made with Recycled Aggregates.

The increased concern about climate change is revolutionising the building materials sector, making sustainability and environmental friendliness increasingly important. This study evaluates the feasibility of incorporating recycled masonry aggregate (construction and demolition waste) in porous cement-based materials using carbonated water in mixing followed (or not) by curing in a CO2 atmosphere. The use of carbonated water can be very revolutionary in cement-based materials, as it allows hydration and carbonation to occur simultaneously. Calcite and portlandite in the recycled masonry aggregate and act as a buffer for the low-pH carbonated water. Carbonated water produced better mechanical properties and increased accessible water porosity and dry bulk density. The same behaviour was observed with natural aggregates. Carbonated water results in an interlaced shape of carbonate ettringite (needles) and fills the microcracks in the recycled masonry aggregate. Curing in CO2 together with the use of carbonated water (concomitantly) is not beneficial. This study provides innovative solutions for a circular economy in the construction sector using carbonated water in mixing (adsorbing CO2), which is very revolutionary as it allows carbonation to be applied to in-situ products.

Effects of Carbonated Water Concentration on Swallowing Function in Healthy Adults.

In this study, we investigated the effects of carbonated water concentration on swallowing function using surface electromyography (sEMG). Healthy subjects (n = 52, 26.77 ± 3.21 years old) were asked to perform two swallows each of noncarbonated water, low-concentration carbonated water, medium-concentration carbonated water, and high-concentration carbonated water. Onset time, the mean sEMG activity amplitude, and duration of muscle activity in each swallow were measured and analyzed for orbicularis oris, masseter, submental muscle complex and infrahyoid muscles. Onset time significantly decreased and mean sEMG activity amplitude significantly increased with carbonation concentration. Therefore, stimulation with carbonation can be effective for modulating a faster and stronger swallow in the oral and pharyngeal phases of swallowing, and its effect on amplitude was greater in the oral phase than in the pharyngeal phase.Clinical Trials Registration This study is registered with Clinical Research Information Service (KCT0005925).

Modified smart water flooding for promoting carbon dioxide utilization in shale enriched heterogeneous sandstone under surface conditions for oil recovery and storage prospects.

Modern oil reservoirs exhibit high macro-scale heterogeneity, i.e., presence of shales and clays, which complicate the implementation of conventional enhanced oil recovery (EOR) practices. Hence, there is a need to investigate new class of EOR methods which not only improve recovery of oil from reservoir but also reduce formation damage. Thus, in this study, synthetic smart brines of varying salinity were formulated to investigate carbon utilization in shaly-sandstone for oil recovery and sequestration applications. To prepare shaly-sandstone samples, shale content in sand varied between 0 and 25 wt%. The addition of shale reduced porosity and permeability of sand-packs, and porosity ~ 25 and permeability < 10 md were measured for a combination of 75% sand + 25% shale which were originally 38% and 692 md for 100% sand + 0% shale. The oil recovery experiments were performed at temperature ≈ 40 °C and ambient pressure. The impact of shale content was insignificant on CO2-based oil recovery resulting its value remained nearly constant (5-7%). Smart saline water (SSW) solutions were prepared through the dilution of formation water (FW) of typical oilfield salinity and used these SSW solutions in investigating shale swelling and interfacial tension with CO2. Compared to other SSW solutions, SSW-2 (1 part FW/9 part water: 1/10th of FW) demonstrated superior control on mitigating shale swelling (by 67%) and reduce interfacial tension (by 30%) when compared to FW. Moreover, it helped to mobilize higher amount of oil (50% OOIP) from sand-pack (80% sand + 20% shale) in which conventional water flood failed to perform, indicating its viability for EOR from heterogeneous reservoir. In addition, SSW solutions promoted use of carbonated (CO2-enriched) water injection for oil recovery from sandstone exhibiting high shale content of 20% as over 5-8% higher oil recovery was obtained compared to conventional water flooding. Comparative performance of water flooding, salinity water-alternating CO2 flooding and carbonated smart water injection in heterogeneous sandstone.

The Pressor Response to the Drinking of Cold Water and Cold Carbonated Water in Healthy Younger and Older Adults.

Purpose: Water drinking has been proposed for the treatment of orthostatic hypotension because it can increase blood pressure in patients. This study aimed to investigate whether drinking water with a cold or carbonation stimulus would cause a more effective pressor response, and whether it would be greater in older than in younger adults. Methods: We assessed blood pressure and heart rate from non-invasive arterial pressure (a volume-clamp method) and type II electrocardiography in 13 healthy young adults (6 females, 7 males; mean age, 19.9 ± 1.1 years) and nine healthy older adults (all females; mean age, 71.4 ± 4.2 years) who drank 200 mL of cold, cold carbonated, and room temperature water. Results: The pressor response to the drinking of cold and cold carbonated water was greater than that to room temperature water in both younger and older participants (p < 0.05; changes in systolic blood pressure of room temperature water, cold water and cold carbonated water in young: 15.31 ± 9.66, 22.56 ± 11.51 and 32.6 ± 17.98 mmHg, respectively; changes in systolic blood pressure of room temperature water, cold water and cold carbonated water in elderly: 21.84 ± 14.31, 41.53 ± 19.82 and 48.16 ± 16.77 mmHg, respectively). In addition, the pressor response to cold and cold carbonated water was persistent during the recovery period by about 5-10 mmHg (p < 0.05). Furthermore, the pressor response during the drinking and recovery periods was greater in the older than in the younger participants (p < 0.05). Conclusion: Our data suggest that even smaller amounts of water are able to elicit a sustained pressor response, in particular if the water is cold and carbonated. We speculate that the pressor effect may render cold and carbonated water an appropriate first aid method against certain forms of acute hypotension.

Effects of Carbonation and Temperature on Voluntary Swallowing in Healthy Humans.

We investigated how swallowing behaviors are affected by the temperature and carbonation of water in healthy humans. Twenty-nine healthy volunteers were instructed to drink as much natural water, carbonated water, or cider as they wanted, and we recorded the volume of solution swallowed and electromyographic (EMG) activity of the masseter and suprahyoid muscles. Sensory tests regarding the ease of holding the solution in the mouth and ease of swallowing were also performed. The volume of carbonated water swallowed was significantly lower than that of natural water and cider. The ease of holding and swallowing the solution significantly differed between solution types such that natural water was the easiest solution to hold and swallow, followed by cider and then carbonated water in both tests. EMG activity was also affected by the solution type. Masseter EMG activity was significantly lower when swallowing natural water compared with carbonated water. Suprahyoid EMG activity was significantly lower when swallowing natural water compared with carbonated water and cider. The volume of solution swallowed was significantly correlated with the ease of holding and swallowing the solution, but not with masseter or suprahyoid EMG activities. The ease of holding and swallowing the solution significantly affected masseter and suprahyoid EMG activities. The results suggested that when participants experienced difficulty holding and swallowing the solution, masseter and suprahyoid EMG activity increased. Considering our findings that mechanical stimulation with bubbles decreased the volume of solution swallowed and increased EMG activities, carbonated water swallowing may be useful in treating deglutition disorders.

Involvement of capsaicin-sensitive nerves in the initiation of swallowing evoked by carbonated water in anesthetized rats.

Capsaicin powerfully evokes the swallowing reflex and is a known therapeutic agent for improving dysphagia and preventing aspiration pneumonia. However, the role of capsaicin-sensitive nerves in the initiation of swallowing evoked by various natural stimuli remains unclear. To explore this question, we blocked laryngeal capsaicin-sensitive nerves following the coapplication of QX-314 and capsaicin (QX/Cap), and investigated the effects on swallowing evoked by mechanical and chemical stimulation in anesthetized rats. Swallows were evoked by capsaicin, carbonated water (CW), distilled water (DW), and punctate mechanical stimulation using von Frey filaments applied topically to the larynx. Swallows were documented by recording electromyographic activation of the suprahyoid and thyrohyoid muscles. The initiation of swallowing by capsaicin was strongly suppressed at 5 min following QX/Cap treatment and returned in a time-dependent manner. CW-evoked swallows at 5 min following QX/Cap treatment were significantly diminished compared with before and 30 min after treatment. In contrast, DW-evoked and mechanically evoked swallows were unchanged by QX/Cap treatment. Furthermore, CW-evoked swallows were virtually abolished by transection of the superior laryngeal nerves and significantly decreased by the topical application of acid-sensing ion channel-3 (ASIC3) inhibitor APETx2, but they were not affected by the nonselective transient receptor potential channel inhibitor ruthenium red or the ASIC1 inhibitor mambalgin-1. Taken together, we speculate that capsaicin-sensitive nerves play an important role in the initiation of CW-evoked swallows.NEW & NOTEWORTHY The initiation of swallowing evoked by laryngeal capsaicin and carbonated water application was diminished by the coapplication of QX-314 and capsaicin. Carbonated water-evoked swallows were also abolished by transection of the superior laryngeal nerves and were inhibited by the acid-sensing ion channel-3 inhibitor. Capsaicin-sensitive nerves are involved in the initiation of carbonated water-evoked swallows.

Role of carbonated water technique to enhance Tc-99m tetrofosmin myocardial perfusion imaging by reducing subdiaphragmatic artefacts.

OBJECTIVE: Myocardial perfusion imaging (MPI) with single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) is confounded by the extracardiac artefacts cause by hepatobiliary clearance of the radiotracers. Various techniques have been evaluated to lessen those artefacts. In this study, we endeavoured to determine the effect of carbonated water in reducing such infracardiac artefact so to improve MPI image quality, sensitivity and specificity. METHODS: A total of 1000 patients were prospectively enrolled and randomised into two equal groups as A and B. Group A were given 250 ml of carbonated beverages and Group B were given 250 ml plain water immediately after radiotracer injection. Images were evaluated qualitatively and quantitatively for the interfering extracardiac artefacts. RESULTS: The qualitative analysis favoured carbonated water in reducing the interfering intestinal activity during rest as well as stress (p = 0.005 and p < 0.001, respectively). Quantitative calculation showed significant improvement of myocardium to extracardiac ratio with carbonated water ingestion in rest (p = 0.031) and vasodilator stress studies (p = 0.004). However, for exercise stress studies quantitative evaluation were not statistically different between the two protocols (p = 0.855). CONCLUSION: Carbonated water ingestion is an easy and effective way to enhance SPECT image quality by mitigating extracardiac artefacts.

Washing Lime-Pretreated Rice Straw with Carbonated Water Facilitates Calcium Removal and Sugar Recovery in Subsequent Enzymatic Saccharification.

Generally, Ca(OH)2 pretreatment of lignocellulosics for fermentable sugar recovery requires a subsequent washing step for calcium removal and pH control for optimized saccharification. However, washing Ca(OH)2-pretreated feedstock with water is considered problematic because of the low solubility of Ca(OH)2 and its adsorption to biomass. In this study, we estimated the availability of carbonated water for calcium removal from the slurry of Ca(OH)2-pretreated rice straw (RS). We tested two kinds of countercurrent washing sequences, four washings exclusively with water (W4) and two washings with water and subsequent two washings with carbonated water (W2C2). The ratios of calcium removal from pretreatment slurry after washing were 64.2 % for the W4 process and 92.1 % for the W2C2 process. In the W2C2 process, 49 % of the initially added calcium was recovered as CaO by calcination. In enzymatic saccharification tests under a CO2 atmosphere at 1.5 atm, in terms of recovery of both glucose and xylose, pretreated, feedstock washed through the W2C2 process surpassed that washed through the W4 process, which could be attributed to the pH difference during saccharification: 5.6 in the W2C2 process versus 6.3 in the W4 process. Additionally, under an unpressurized CO2 atmosphere at 1 atm, the feedstock washed through the W2C2 process released 78.5 % of total glucose residues and 90.0 % of total xylose residues. Thus, efficient removal of calcium from pretreatment slurry would lead to not only the recovery of added calcium but also the proposal of a new, simple saccharification system to be used under an unpressurized CO2 atmosphere condition.

The Effect of Consumers' Factors of Food Choices on Replacing Soft Drinks with Carbonated Water / 대한지역사회영양학회지

OBJECTIVES: This research was conducted to identify the consumers' food choice factors that affect the consumers' replacement of soft drinks with carbonated water. METHODS: The present study used secondary data from a consumer panel survey conducted by the Rural Development Administration of Korea, and the data included the panel members' purchase records based on their monthly spending receipts. The survey asked the participants about their food choice factors and their personal responsibility for their health. This survey included independent variables for the consumers' food purchase factors. As a dependent variable, two types of groups were defined. The replacement group included those people who increased their purchase of carbonated water and decreased their purchase of soft drinks. The non-replacement group included those people who did not change their purchase patterns or they increased their purchase of soft drinks and they decreased their purchase of carbonated water. Logistic regression analysis was conducted to determine the consumers' food choice factors that were associated with replacing soft drinks with carbonated water. RESULTS: The replacement group was significantly associated with (1) a younger age (OR=0.953), (2) being a housewife (OR=2.03), (3) higher income (OR=1.001) and (4) less concern about price (OR=0.819) when purchasing food. This group also showed (5) higher enjoyment (OR=1.328) when choosing food and (6) they took greater responsibly for their personal health (OR=1.233). CONCLUSIONS: This research is the first study to mainly focus on soft drinks and carbonated water. The result of this research showed that young, health-conscious consumers with a higher income and who are more interested in food have more possibilities to replace soft drinks with carbonated water. These research findings may be applied to consumers who have characteristics that are similar to the young health-conscious consumers and the results can help to suggest ways to reduce sugar intake and improve public health. However, this research has a limitation due to the application of secondary data. Therefore, a future study is needed to develop detailed survey questions about food choice factors and to extend these factors to all beverages, including soft drinks made with sugar substitutes, so as to reflect the growth of alternative industries that use artificial sweeteners or different types of sugar to make commercially available drinks.

Influence of mouthwashes on extended exhaled nitric oxide (FENO) analysis.

Fractional exhaled nitric oxide (FENO) is used to assess eosinophilic inflammation of the airways. FENO values are influenced by the expiratory flow rate and orally produced NO. We measured FENO at four different expiratory flow levels after two different mouthwashes: tap water and carbonated water. Further, we compared the alveolar NO concentration (CANO), maximum airway NO flux (J'awNO) and airway NO diffusion (DawNO) after these two mouthwashes. FENO was measured in 30 volunteers (healthy or asthmatic) with a chemiluminescence NO-analyser at flow rates of 30, 50, 100 and 300 mL/s. A mouthwash was performed before the measurement at every flow rate. The carbonated water mouthwash significantly reduced FENO compared to the tap water mouthwash at all expiratory flows: 50 mL/s (p < .001), 30 mL/s (p = .001), 100 mL/s (p < .001) and 300 mL/s (p = .004). J'awNO was also significantly reduced (p = .017), however, there were no significant differences in CANO and DawNO. In conclusion, a carbonated water mouthwash can significantly reduce oropharyngeal NO compared to a tap water mouthwash at expiratory flows of 30-300 mL/s without affecting the CANO and DawNO. Therefore, mouthwashes need to be taken into account when comparing FENO results.

Effect of leg immersion in mild warm carbonated water on skin and muscle blood flow.

Leg immersion in carbonated water improves endothelial-mediated vasodilator function and decreases arterial stiffness but the mechanism underlying this effect remains poorly defined. We hypothesized that carbonated water immersion increases muscle blood flow. To test this hypothesis, 10 men (age 21 ± 0 years; mean ± SD) underwent lower leg immersion in tap or carbonated water at 38°C. We evaluated gastrocnemius muscle oxyhemoglobin concentration and tissue oxygenation index using near-infrared spectroscopy, skin blood flow by laser Doppler flowmetry, and popliteal artery (PA) blood flow by duplex ultrasound. Immersion in carbonated, but not tap water elevated PA (from 38 ± 14 to 83 ± 31 mL/min; P < 0.001) and skin blood flow (by 779 ± 312%, P < 0.001). In contrast, lower leg immersion elevated oxyhemoglobin concentration and tissue oxygenation index with no effect of carbonation (P = 0.529 and P = 0.495). In addition, the change in PA blood flow in response to immersion in carbonated water correlated with those of skin blood flow (P = 0.005) but not oxyhemoglobin concentration (P = 0.765) and tissue oxygenation index (P = 0.136) while no relations was found for tap water immersion. These findings indicate that water carbonation has minimal effect on muscle blood flow. Furthermore, PA blood flow increases in response to lower leg immersion in carbonated water likely due to a large increase in skin blood flow.

Reduction of FENO by tap water and carbonated water mouthwashes: magnitude and time course.

Fractional exhaled nitric oxide (FENO) assesses eosinophilic inflammation of the airways, but FENO values are also influenced by oral nitric oxide (NO). The aim of this pilot study was to measure FENO and compare the effect of two different mouthwashes on FENO and analyse the duration of the effect. FENO was measured in 12 randomized volunteers (healthy or asthmatic subjects) with a NIOX VERO® analyser at an expiratory flow rate of 50 mL/s. After a baseline measurement, a mouthwash was performed either with tap water or carbonated water and was measured during 20 min in 2 min intervals. The procedure was repeated with the other mouthwash. We found that both mouthwashes reduced FENO immediately at the beginning compared to the baseline (p < .001). The carbonated water mouthwash effect lasted 12 min (p ranging from <0.001 to <0.05). The tap water mouthwash reduced FENO statistically significantly only for 2 min compared with the baseline. We conclude that a single carbonated water mouthwash can significantly reduce the oropharyngeal NO contribution during a 12 min time interval.

Effect of carbonated water manufactured by a soda carbonator on etched or sealed enamel.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of carbonated water on etched or sealed enamel according to the carbonation level and the presence of calcium ions. METHODS: Carbonated water with different carbonation levels was manufactured by a soda carbonator. Seventy-five premolar teeth were randomly divided into a control group and 4 experimental groups in accordance with the carbonation level and the presence of calcium ions in the test solutions. After specimen preparation of the Unexposed, Etched, and Sealed enamel subgroups, all the specimens were submerged in each test solution for 15 minutes three times a day during 7 days. Microhardness tests on the Unexposed and Etched enamel subgroups were performed with 10 specimens from each group. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) tests on the Unexposed, Etched, and Sealed enamel subgroups were performed with 5 specimens from each group. Microhardness changes in different groups were statistically compared using paired t-tests, the Wilcoxon signed rank test, and the Kruskal-Wallis test. RESULTS: The microhardness changes were significantly different between the groups (p = 0.000). The microhardness changes in all experimental groups except Group 3 (low-level carbonated water with calcium ions) were significantly greater than those in the Control group. SEM showed that etched areas of the specimen were affected by carbonated water and the magnitude of destruction varied between groups. Adhesive material was partially removed in groups exposed to carbonated water. CONCLUSIONS: Carbonated water has negative effects on etched or sealed enamel, resulting in decreased microhardness and removal of the adhesive material.

Carbonated water as a novel washing medium for mackerel (Auxis thazard) surimi production.

Effect of cold carbonated water (CW) washing on the biochemical properties and gel characteristics of mackerel surimi was evaluated. Three washing cycles were performed with different orders of washing medium including T1 (water, water and water), T2 (CW, water and water), T3 (CW, CW and water) and T4 (CW, CW and CW). The results showed that CW washing, especially T4, caused the decrease in pH, Ca2+-ATPase activity and surface hydrophobicity and led to the increase in reactive sulfhydryl content. Regardless of washing treatment, haem protein of surimi decreased significantly compared to unwashed mince. However, carbonated water did not improve haem protein removal. The highest lipid reduction was found in T1 and T2. Gels from all CW washing treatments had a comparable whiteness. Breaking force of CW surimi gel increased with increasing washing cycle (T2 < T3 < T4). Deformations of all surimi gels were not much different (~7 mm). Expressible drip increased with increasing CW washing cycle. Numbers of jointed spherical matrices were found in surimi gel microstructures. With increasing CW washing cycle, densely packed aggregates were formed. Therefore, CW washing with appropriate cycle can be used as an alternative means for mackerel surimi production.

Oral Carbonation Attenuates Feeling of Hunger and Gastric Myoelectrical Activity in Young Women.

We previously reported that carbonated water ingestion induced fullness and gastric motility. In order to determine whether such satiating effects occur through oral carbonic stimulation alone, we conducted modified sham-feeding (SF) tests (carbonated water ingestion (CW), water ingestion (W), carbonated water sham-feeding (CW-SF), and water sham-feeding (W-SF)), employing an equivalent volume and standardized temperature of carbonated and plain water, in a randomized crossover design. Thirteen young women began fasting at 10 p.m. on the previous night and were loaded with each sample (15ºC, 250 mL) at 9 a.m. on separate days. Electrogastrography (EGG) recordings were obtained from 20 min before to 45 min after the loading to determine the power and frequency of the gastric myoelectrical activity. Appetite was assessed using visual analog scales. After ingestion, significantly increased fullness and decreased hunger ratings were observed in the CW group. After the load, transiently but significantly increased fullness as well as decreased hunger ratings were observed in the CW-SF group. The powers of normogastria (2-4 cpm) and tachygastria (4-9 cpm) showed significant increases in the CW and W groups, but not in the CW-SF and W-SF groups. The peak frequency of normogastria tended to shift toward a higher band in the CW group, whereas it shifted toward a lower band in the CW-SF group, indicating a different EGG rhythm. Our results suggest that CO2-induced oral stimulation is solely responsible for the feeling of satiety. Moreover, different gastric-contraction rhythms (slow or fast) were induced by oral carbonic stimulation alone and carbonated water ingestion.