Brief report: Social comparison, hypercompetitiveness, and indirect aggression: Associations with loneliness and mental health.

Indirect aggression is commonly used in adulthood, but most researchers have focused on this behavior in romantic relationships or from an intrasexual competition perspective. Therefore, we aimed to understand the social characteristics and mental health correlates of indirect aggression by combining perspectives from developmental psychopathology and evolutionary psychology. We examined: (1) whether social characteristics (social comparison, hypercompetitiveness) contributed to indirect aggression (perpetration, victimization) and (2) whether there were indirect effects from indirect aggression (perpetration, victimization) to mental health difficulties through loneliness. In a cross-sectional sample of 475 young adults (57.7% women, 51.6% White, Mage = 20.2, SDage = 2.18), path analyses revealed that social comparison predicted indirect aggression victimization, which indirectly predicted mental health difficulties (depression, anxiety, somatic symptoms) through loneliness. In contrast, indirect aggression perpetration was only predicted by hypercompetitiveness. The findings highlight that reframing cognitions associated with social comparison could help prevent indirect aggression and mental health difficulties among young people.

To meme or not to meme? Political social media posts and ideologically motivated aggression in job recommendations.

This study tested the notion of ideological asymmetry, which proposes that conservatives are more prejudiced than liberals. It involved 682 self-identified conservative (n = 383) and liberal (n = 299) perceivers (MTurk workers; 54% female) who evaluated a target person's professional attributes, personal character, and job suitability based on the target's social media posts. The results did not support ideological asymmetry as both conservative and liberal participants negatively evaluated an ideologically opposite target. Interestingly, liberals showed three times more bias than conservatives. This study better supports a worldview conflict hypothesis, an alternative to ideological asymmetry, with both sides showing indirect aggression in an apolitical setting.

Indirect aggression, anxiety, and empathy: Disaggregating between and within person longitudinal associations during childhood and adolescence.

Although indirectly aggressive behavior and anxiety symptoms can co-occur, it is unclear whether anxiety is an antecedent or outcome of indirect aggression at the individual level and whether other personality traits can contribute to these longitudinal associations. Therefore, the between- and within-person associations among indirect aggression, anxiety symptoms, and empathic concern were examined across adolescence from ages 11 to 16 in a cohort of individuals followed annually (N = 700; 52.9% girls; 76.0% White) controlling for direct aggression and demographic variables. Results of autoregressive latent trajectory models with structured residuals supported an acting out model at the within-person level. Specifically, anxiety symptoms positively predicted indirect aggression and indirect aggression negatively predicted empathic concern at each adjacent time point. These findings suggest that methods of reducing worries about the self and increasing healthy self-confidence could prevent indirect aggression and help build concern and compassion toward others.

Boldness, meanness and disinhibition as predictors of indirect/direct type of aggressive behavior in youth. / Zuchwalosc, bezdusznosc i rozhamowanie jako predyktory posrednich/bezposrednich zachowan agresywnych u mlodziezy.

OBJECTIVES: Numerous studies show that a high level of psychopathic traits in youth is related to the propensity to use various types and forms of aggression. The presented study focuses on the relations between psychopathy and aggression, both indirect (relational) and direct in this age group. The triarchic model of psychopathy was used, according to which psychopathy is described as a configuration of boldness, meanness and disinhibition. It was assumed that boldness would be a predictor for indirect aggression and disinhibition - for the direct forms of aggressive behaviors. METHODS: The sample consisted of 200 older adolescents (108 boys and 92 girls), aged 16-19. Two groups were distinguished for comparison: juveniles from youth fostering centers and youth not violating legal norms. For the measurement of the variables the following self-reports were used: Triarchic Psychopathy Measure, Indirect Aggression Scale (Aggressor Version) and Aggression Questionnaire. RESULTS: From among the dimensions of psychopathy, the strongest predictor for both forms of aggression (indirect and direct) was disinhibition. The study also revealed the differences in the intensity of psychopathic traits and aggressive behaviors with reference to gender and institutionalization. However, the hypothesis on the relationship between boldness and indirect aggression was not confirmed. CONCLUSIONS: The results showed that disinhibition and meanness can be considered as significant personality risk factors for aggressive behaviors and violence not only in adults but also in adolescents. The study supported also the heterogeneity of the triarchic model of psychopathy itself.

The Role of Psychological Maturity and the Big Five Personality Traits in the Victimization Through Indirect aggression / El Papel de la Madurez Psicológica y los Cinco Grandes Factores dePersonalidad en la Victimización Mediante Agresiones Indirectas

Background: Peer victimization is a problem that affects adolescentsworldwide. Since so few studies have been made on the relationshipbetween maturity and indirect peer victimization, the main objective ofthis study was to determine if maturity provides incremental validitybeyond the personality traits when predicting indirect victimization.Another objective was to test a model of how all these variables are relatedto depressive symptomatology and life satisfaction. Method: 548 highschool students completed five questionnaires. We performed correlations,multiple regression analysis and structural equation analysis. Results:The hierarchical regression analyses show that maturity has incrementalvalidity in predicting indirect peer victimization. Two personality traits(emotional stability and agreeableness) and two maturity factors (identityand self-reliance) were major predictors of indirect peer victimization.The hierarchical regression analyses also show that major predictors werethe same for girls and boys. The Structural Equation Model tested had agood fit, which suggests that indirect victimization increases depressivesymptomatology and decreases life satisfaction. Conclusions: The resultssuggest that both personality traits and psychological maturity have to betaken into account when predicting indirect peer victimization. The studyalso shows the emotional suffering related to this victimization

Antecedentes: la victimización a través de agresiones indirectas es unproblema que sufren adolescentes de todo el mundo. Dado que se hanrealizado pocos estudios sobre la relación entre madurez y victimizaciónindirecta, el principal objetivo del presente estudio es evaluar la validezincremental de la madurez en la predicción de la victimización, más allá dela predicha por los rasgos de personalidad. Otro objetivo es evaluar cómose relacionan estas variables con la depresión y la satisfacción con la vida.Método: 548 adolescentes contestaron cinco cuestionarios. Se realizaroncorrelaciones, análisis de regresión y análisis de ecuaciones estructurales.Resultados: las regresiones jerárquicas muestran que la madurez tienevalidez incremental en la predicción de la victimización indirecta. Dosrasgos de personalidad (estabilidad emocional y amabilidad) y dos factoresde madurez (identidad y autonomía) son los principales predictores enambos sexos. El modelo de educaciones estructurales evaluado presenta unbuen ajuste, lo que sugiere que la victimización aumenta la sintomatologíadepresiva y disminuye la satisfacción con la vida. Conclusiones: tanto losrasgos de personalidad como la madurez psicológica se han de tener encuenta para la predicción de la victimización indirecta. El estudio tambiénmuestra el sufrimiento relacionado con esta victimización

Competitive gossip: the impact of domain, resource value, resource scarcity and coalitions.

Those with better reputations often obtain more resources than those with poorer reputations. Consequently, gossip might be an evolved strategy to compete for valuable and scarce material and social resources. Influenced by models of non-human primate competition, we test the hypotheses that gossip: (i) targets aspects of reputation relevant to the domain in which the competition is occurring, (ii) increases when contested resources are more valuable, and (iii) increases when resources are scarcer. We then test hypotheses derived from informational warfare theory, which proposes that coalitions strategically collect, analyse and disseminate gossip. Specifically, we test whether: (iv) coalitions deter negative gossip, and (v) whether they increase expectations of reputational harm to competitors. Using experimental methods in a Mechanical Turk sample (n = 600), and survey and ego network analysis methods in a sample of California sorority women (n = 74), we found that gossip content is specific to the context of the competition; that more valuable and scarcer resources cause gossip, particularly negative gossip, to intensify; and that allies deter negative gossip and increase expectations of reputational harm to an adversary. These results support social competition theories of gossip. This article is part of the theme issue 'The language of cooperation: reputation and honest signalling'.

The Impact of Childhood Bullying Trajectories on Young Adulthood Antisocial Trajectories.

Long-term outcomes of childhood bullying perpetration have been explored, but heterogeneity in outcomes reflecting nonclinical antisocial tendencies including indirect aggression, psychopathic personality, and interpersonal relations have not been examined from a person-centered approach. Accordingly, latent class growth analyses were used to examine trajectory groups of childhood bullying perpetration across ages 10 to 18 and multi-trajectory groups of young adulthood outcomes across ages 19 to 23 (indirect aggression, psychopathic personality, interpersonal relations). In a sample of 701 participants (52.9% girls/women) followed annually, the majority of individuals reflected a low stable trajectory of bullying (81.2%) and fewer reflected moderate increasing bullying (18.8%). In young adulthood, the majority of participants reflected a prosocial multi-trajectory profile (61.6%; below average decreasing indirect aggression, below average decreasing psychopathy, above average stable interpersonal relations). Fewer participants reflected a below average antisocial profile (21.6%; below average decreasing indirect aggression, below average stable psychopathy, below average stable interpersonal relations) or an above average antisocial profile (16.8%; above average decreasing indirect aggression, above average decreasing psychopathy, below average stable interpersonal relations). Individuals following the moderate bullying trajectory in childhood had a significantly higher odds of following the above average antisocial profile but not the prosocial profile in young adulthood, when contrasted against the below average antisocial profile. These findings indicate that the prevention of childhood bullying can help prevent the continuity of an antisocial profile in young adulthood that is characterized by continued aggressive behavior, higher psychopathy, and poorer quality relationships.

Mean kids become mean adults: Trajectories of indirect aggression from age 10 to 22.

Although much is known about the development of physical aggression across the lifespan, far less is known about the developmental pattern of indirect aggression from childhood to adulthood. Accordingly, we examined the self-reported use of indirect aggression from age 10 to 22 in a randomly drawn sample of 704 Canadians. A person-centered approach was used to capture intraindividual change and heterogeneity in development. Four childhood (age 10-18) indirect aggression trajectories were identified: (1) a very low decreasing group (64.8%), (2) a low decreasing group (26.0%), (3) a low-to-moderate increasing group (5.1%), and (4) a moderate increasing group (4.1%). There were more girls than boys in the moderate increasing group (75.9% vs. 24.1%). Two adulthood (age 19-22) indirect aggression trajectory groups were also identified: (1) a low decreasing group (82.6%), and (2) a moderate stable group (17.4%). No sex differences were found among adults' use across the two trajectories. When we examined the prediction of indirect aggression use in adulthood from indirect aggression use in childhood, we found that children who followed a moderate increasing trajectory from age 10 to 18 were nine times more likely to follow a moderate stable trajectory from age 19 to 22, while children who followed a low-to-moderate increasing trajectory across childhood were 14 times more likely to follow a moderate stable trajectory across adulthood (compared to the very low decreasing group). Given the negative impact indirect aggression has on others, intervening early to derail this pattern of abuse is justified.

The role of empathy and social anxiety in Latinx adolescents' indirect peer aggression during the transition to high school.

The primary purpose of this study was to evaluate the relationship between decreased empathy (i.e., cognitive and affective) and indirect and cyber peer aggression among Latinx adolescents during their transition to high school. Further, we examined the degree to which social anxiety moderated this relationship. Participants were 469 Latinx ninth graders, ages 13-17 years (M = 14.52, SD = 0.58; 58% girls). Adolescents completed the Revised Peer Experiences Questionnaire, Cyber Peer Experiences Questionnaire, Basic Empathy Scale, and Social Anxiety Scale for Adolescents at two different time points, 3 months apart. Hierarchical linear regression analyses revealed concurrent and prospective relationships between lower cognitive empathy and the perpetration of both indirect and cyber aggression. In addition, social anxiety moderated the concurrent associations between both types of empathy and both types of aggression perpetration. Results suggest that interventions that facilitate cognitive empathy and decrease social anxiety may help to reduce adolescents' indirect and cyber aggression toward peers throughout the high school transition.

The Use of Indirect Aggression among Boys and Girls with and without Conduct Problems: Trajectories from Childhood to Adolescence.

Though conceptually distinct from other behavior problems, indirect aggression (IA) is correlated with physical aggression and is linked to oppositional defiant disorder and conduct disorder from childhood to adolescence. Thus, IA could be part of the clinical picture of children with identified conduct problems (CP). However, trajectories of IA have not been studied in children with CP. In the present study, we evaluated and compared the mean trajectory of IA from 7 to 14 years of age in children with (n = 328; 47.6% girls) and without (n = 320; 51.3% girls) early clinically significant CP using both parent and teacher ratings. We then examined if sub-groups of children distinguished themselves by their use of IA over time and tested for sex differences. Latent growth models showed that children with CP used IA at higher rates over time than children without CP. Regardless of this higher frequency, the use of IA in both groups of children was best described by down-turned curvilinear trajectories peaking at 10 years of age. Growth mixture models showed that children without CP, according to parent and teacher ratings, and children with CP, according to parent ratings, both followed two trajectories of IA over time, with, respectively, 10% to 14% of them following a high trajectory. As for sex differences, the use of IA of boys and girls without CP did not differ, but differences emerged for children with CP, with girls using IA more frequently. The clinical implications of the findings are discussed.

The growth of gossip: Socialization of relational aggression from adolescence to emerging adulthood.

The extant literature suggests that relational aggression appears in early childhood, and gradually increases throughout adolescence. However, very little research has examined the growth of relational aggression from adolescence to emerging adulthood. In addition, research generally examines socializing factors of relational aggression, such as parenting, peers, siblings, or media in isolation. Accordingly, the aim of the current study was to examine these socializing factors conjunctively as predictors of the growth of relational aggression over time. Participants consisted of 500 adolescents who completed several questionnaires over a 7-year period (between ages 14-20 on average). Results revealed that the vast majority of individuals (88%) showed low levels of relational aggression that decreased over time. Conversely, a small proportion of individuals (12%) had high, increasing levels of relational aggression between adolescence and emerging adulthood. High levels of maternal psychological control, sibling hostility, and relational aggression in the media at the initial time point all predicted being in the high and increasing group.

Adolescent Social Networks and Physical, Verbal, and Indirect Aggression in China: The Moderating Role of Gender.

Aggressive adolescents are preferable in some Western cultures, whereas Confucianism places great emphasis on the inhibition of aggressive behaviors in Chinese culture. Using the longitudinal social network analysis, we used a sample of 1354 Chinese adolescents (54% boys, ages 12-15) who were followed over 1 year at three time points to examine the association between friendship dynamics and physical, verbal, and indirect aggression and the moderating role of gender. This study found the following: (1) Students who were verbally aggressive were regarded as attractive, whereas those who were indirectly aggressive were unattractive as friends; (2) adolescents selected peers with similar levels of aggression as friends; (3) adolescents were influenced by their friends' aggressive behaviors; and (4) girls were more susceptible than boys to the influence of physical aggression, although gender did not moderate the influence process of verbal and indirect aggression. The findings of this study provided a clearer insight into the selection and influence processes of the three subtypes of aggression and contributed to the diversity of samples. Chinese educators should pay more attention to both verbal aggression because of youths' preference for it and to girls with physically aggressive friends since they are more susceptible than boys.

A daily diary investigation of self-reported alcohol-related direct and indirect aggression.

Research supports the relationship between alcohol use and direct aggression, however, scant research has examined the association between alcohol use and indirectly aggressive behavior. Further, extant research has relied on retrospective reporting of behaviors, which may be subject to recall bias. The daily diary methodology enables the assessment of both the between- and within-subject variation, as well as reduces the likelihood of biased reporting. Consequently, the current study utilized a daily diary design to examine (a) associations between daily alcohol use and alcohol-related aggressive behaviors (i.e., direct and indirect); and (b) the co-occurrence of alcohol-related direct and indirect aggression. Participants were 105 (80% female) college student drinkers. Students completed baseline questionnaires and up to 14 consecutive, daily surveys regarding their previous day alcohol use, alcohol-related direct aggression, and alcohol-related indirect aggression. Findings revealed that alcohol use was associated with same day alcohol-related direct and indirect aggression, after controlling for baseline alcohol use. Self-reported alcohol-related direct aggression was more likely to occur on days in which self-reported alcohol-related indirect aggression occurred, after controlling for dispositional aggression, trait self-control, and baseline alcohol use. Results of the study suggest that, similar to alcohol-related direct aggression, alcohol use is associated with an increased likelihood of alcohol-related indirect aggression. Further, the co-occurrence of alcohol-related indirect and direct aggression supports that individuals may be engaging in multiple types of aggressive behaviors. Findings extend previous cross-sectional and qualitative research suggesting that indirect aggression may co-occur, perhaps increasing in severity.

"We're not gonna be friends anymore": Associations between viewing relational aggression on television and relational aggression in text messaging during adolescence.

A number of studies suggest that adolescents who view relational aggression on television are more likely to engage in higher levels of subsequent relational aggression in social interactions. This study examined longitudinal associations between viewing relational aggression on television and relationally aggressive behavior in text messaging over a 1-year period during adolescence. Participants were 197 adolescents who completed a number of questionnaires regarding media use and aggression. Adolescents were each given a BlackBerry device and a sample of text messages was coded for aggressive behavior. Results revealed that exposure to relational aggression on television was associated with higher levels of relational aggression in texting one year later, but only for girls. Results are discussed with reference to the General Aggression Model.

Sex differences on the four-facet model of psychopathy predict physical, verbal, and indirect aggression.

Psychopathy is a multifaceted construct that has been linked to aggression. Yet, few studies have explored the association between physical, verbal, and indirect aggression using the 4-facet model of psychopathy in community samples, and to date, no studies exist that test for male and female differences. The present study aimed to understand what facets of psychopathy predict aggressive behavior for men and women, while controlling for important risk factors, such as Antisocial Personality Disorder (ASPD). Drawing from a large Bulgarian community sample (N = 565), a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) supported the use of the 4-facet model of the Psychopathy Checklist: Screening Version (PCL:SV; Hart et al., ). Hierarchical linear regressions revealed that physical aggression was predicted by affective and antisocial psychopathic traits, and ASPD. Verbal aggression was predicted by the interpersonal facet, and indirect aggression was predicted by the antisocial psychopathy facet and ASPD. Sex significantly moderated the associations among facets of psychopathy and physical and indirect aggression. Specifically, the affective facet was positively associated with physical aggression only for women, whereas the antisocial facet was positively associated with indirect aggression only for men. Results suggest that the 4-facet model of psychopathy is sensitive to capture important similarities and differences between males and females when predicting forms of aggression in community samples. These findings underscore the importance of understanding how men and women differ in their risk-factors for aggressive behavior, which will better inform violence interventions based on sex-specific needs.

The Napoleon Complex: When Shorter Men Take More.

Inspired by an evolutionary psychological perspective on the Napoleon complex, we hypothesized that shorter males are more likely to show indirect aggression in resource competitions with taller males. Three studies provide support for our interpretation of the Napoleon complex. Our pilot study shows that men (but not women) keep more resources for themselves when they feel small. When paired with a taller male opponent (Study 1), shorter men keep more resources to themselves in a game in which they have all the power (dictator game) versus a game in which the opponent also has some power (ultimatum game). Furthermore, shorter men are not more likely to show direct, physical aggression toward a taller opponent (Study 2). As predicted by the Napoleon complex, we conclude that (relatively) shorter men show greater behavioral flexibility in securing resources when presented with cues that they are physically less competitive. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.

Predictors of childhood trajectories of overt and indirect aggression: An interdisciplinary approach.

The aim of this study was to advance our understanding of the development of aggression in boys and girls by testing a model combining insights from both evolutionary theory and developmental psychology. A sample of 744 children (348 girls) between six and 13 years old was recruited in schools with high deprivation indices. Half of the sample (N = 372; 40.1% girls) had received special educational services for behavioral and/or socio-emotional problems. Two trajectories for overt aggression and two trajectories for indirect aggression were identified and binomial logistic regressions were used to identify environmental predictors and sex-specific patterns of these trajectories. Results indicated that peer rejection predicted overt aggression and indirect aggression and that extraversion and male sex predicted overt aggression. The results also showed that interaction between parental practices and some child temperament traits predicted overt aggression (coercion and lack of supervision associated with extraversion or low effortful control) or indirect aggression (coercion and neglect associated with negative affect or low effortful control), and the absence of a father figure predicted high indirect aggression in girls.

Predicting dating behavior from aggression and self-perceived social status in adolescence.

We investigated the longitudinal associations between self-reported aggression, self-perceived social status, and dating in adolescence using an intrasexual competition theoretical framework. Participants consisted of 536 students in Grade 9 (age 15), recruited from a community sample, who were assessed on a yearly basis until they were in Grade 11 (age 17). Adolescents self-reported their use of direct and indirect aggression, social status, and number of dating partners. A cross-lagged panel model that controlled for within-time covariance and across-time stability while examining cross-lagged pathways was used to analyze the data. The findings revealed that direct aggression did not predict dating behavior and was negatively associated with self-perceived social status in Grade 10. Self-perceived social status in Grade 9 was positively associated with greater use of indirect aggression in Grade 10. Regarding dating, in Grade 9, self-perceived social status positively predicted more dating partners the following year, while in Grade 10, it was higher levels of indirect aggression that predicted greater dating activity the following year. Overall, there were no significant sex differences in the model. The study supports the utility of evolutionary psychological theory in explaining peer aggression, and suggests that although social status can increase dating opportunities, as adolescents mature, indirect aggression becomes the most successful and strategic means of competing intrasexually and gaining mating advantages.

Aggression Predicts Changes in Peer Victimization that Vary by Form and Function.

Peer victimization is predictive of serious problems in adjustment, especially among children who are both victimized and aggressive. This study investigated how different types of aggression contribute to later victimization. Specifically, we examined prospective relationships between the types of aggression that children perpetrated and the types that they experienced at the hands of others. Trained observers coded schoolyard behavior of 553 children in grades 3-6 during the initial year of a bullying intervention program. Both observed aggression and victimization were specified by form (direct, indirect) and function (proactive, reactive). Total hourly rates of victimization were highest in the upper grades. Direct-reactive aggression uniquely predicted increases in victimization, while direct-proactive aggression predicted decreases, particularly in direct-proactive victimization. Indirect-proactive aggression (e.g., derogatory gossip) predicted increases in indirect-proactive victimization only in the control group. Indirect-reactive aggression and victimization occurred too rarely to detect change. Aggression-victimization relationships did not differ for boys and girls. Discussion considers why children might risk direct reactive aggression in the face of increased victimization. Different sequelae for different forms and functions of aggression highlight the need to resolve theoretical ambiguities in defining proactive and reactive aggression.

Own Attractiveness and Dissatisfaction With Physical Appearance Independently Predict the Salience of Facial Cues to Size When Women Judge Other Women's Attractiveness.

While facial cues to body size are a valid guide to health and attractiveness, it is unclear whether the observer's own condition predicts the salience of (low) size as a cue to female attractiveness. The current study examines whether measures related to women's own attractiveness/appearance predict the extent to which they use facial cues to size to differentiate other women on the attractiveness dimension. Women completed a body mass index (BMI) preference task, where they indicated their preference for high- versus low-BMI versions of the same woman, provided data to calculate their BMI and completed various psychometric measures (self-rated attractiveness/health, dissatisfaction with physical appearance). Here, attractive women and women who were dissatisfied with their own appearance were more likely to associate facial cues to low body size with high attractiveness. These data suggest that psychological factors related to women's appearance shape their evaluations of other women based on cues to size. Such variation in attractiveness judgements may function to reduce the costs of female competition for resources, for example, by identifying "quality" rivals or excluding others based on cues to size.