Mycotoxins and coccidiosis in poultry - co-occurrence, interaction, and effects.

Avian coccidiosis, a common disease caused by Eimeria species, results in significant losses in global poultry production. Mycotoxins are low-molecular-weight natural products (i.e., small molecules) produced as secondary metabolites by filamentous fungi and they have the potential to economically and significantly affect global poultry production. Little is known about the relationship between mycotoxins and avian coccidiosis, although they often co-occur in the field. This comprehensive review examines the intricate relationship between mycotoxins and avian coccidiosis, in particular how mycotoxins, including aflatoxins, ochratoxins, trichothecenes as well as Fusarium mycotoxins, compromise the health of the poultry flock and open the door to Eimeria parasites in the gut. In addition, this review sheds light on the immunosuppressive effects of mycotoxins, their disruption of cellular signaling pathways, and the consequent exacerbation of coccidiosis infections. The mechanisms of mycotoxin toxicity are also reviewed, emphasizing direct damage to intestinal epithelial cells, impaired nutrient absorption, inflammation, oxidative stress, and changes in the gut microbiota. Finally, the consequences for the prevention and treatment of coccidiosis when mycotoxins are present in the feed are discussed. This review emphasizes the need for effective management strategies to mitigate the combined risks of mycotoxins and coccidiosis and highlights the complexity of diagnosing and controlling these interrelated problems in poultry. The review advocates a holistic approach that includes strict feed management, disease prevention measures and regular monitoring to maintain the health and productivity of poultry against these significant challenges.

Animal performance and biochemical parameters are sex-dependent in peripubertal rats exposed to deoxynivalenol.

Deoxynivalenol (DON), a mycotoxin produced mainly by Fusarium graminearum and F. culmorum commonly contaminates food commodities across the globe. Due to this, exposure to DON might pose potential health hazards to humans and animals. Biological factors like sex and age can influence the toxicity of DON. However, in toxicological studies involving DON, the sex and age-dependent response has been often overlooked. Thereby, the objective of this study was to evaluate if sex differences are evident in DON's systemic effects in peripubertal rats. Juvenile animals (n = 24) with 28 days postnatal day were randomly assigned to two experimental groups: Control group (n = 12, 6 females and 6 males, mycotoxin-free diet) and DON group (n = 12, 6 females and 6 males, diet containing 10 mg DON/kg of feed). During 28 days of treatment, the animals were weighed weekly and body weight gain and food intake were calculated for each week. After the experimental period, blood samples, intestine, liver, and kidney were collected and destined for biochemical, hematological, histopathological, and oxidative stress analyses. Greater anorectic responses were seen in males, while only females showed increased levels of creatinine and triglycerides. Regardless of sex, DON induces an increased number of white blood cells, particularly lymphocytes and a significant reduction in the levels of hemoglobin, hematocrit, mean corpuscular hemoglobin, and neutrophils. In males and females fed a DON-contaminated diet, histological lesions were observed in the intestine, liver, and kidney. Ingestion of DON induced a significant increase in the antioxidant potential in the intestine, liver, and kidney. However, this effect was not able to prevent oxidative stress in the renal tissue. Taken together, our results showed a sex-related response in food intake, weight gain, and biochemical parameters in rats exposed to DON during the juvenile and peripubertal periods. In addition, we have verified that oxidative stress is an important mechanism in the nephrotoxicity of DON.

Effect of adsorbents on diets with corn contaminated by mycotoxins on the productive performance and health of broilers / Effect of adsorbents on diets with corn contaminated by mycotoxins on the productive performance and health of broilers

A total of 1,296 broiler chicken were housed, distributed in a completely randomized design with 6 treatments and 6 repetitions. The treatments consisted of a control diet formulated with corn considered adequate and without the addition of adsorbent, a diet formulated with corn naturally contaminated with mycotoxin (CCM) and four diets formulated with CCM and added with different commercial adsorbents. At the end of the first week and at 21 days of age of the birds, it was observed that the control diet resulted in greater (p < 0.05) live weight and weight gain in relation to the inclusion of CCM. The relative weight of the liver was lower for the control group compared to the groups receiving a diet with CCM and CCM + ads D. The relative weight of the proventriculus and cloacal bursa was lower for the control group compared to those who received a diet with CCM + ads B and CCM + ads C. There was no significant effect (p > 0.05) of the diets on the analysis of serum biochemistry and the occurrence of fatty and hydropic degeneration in the liver of broilers. The use of adsorbents can mitigate the harmful effects of mycotoxins, however, these products have specific binding capacity to the type of mycotoxin present in food.

A total of 1,296 broiler chicken were housed, distributed in a completely randomized design with 6 treatments and 6 repetitions. The treatments consisted of a control diet formulated with corn considered adequate and without the addition of adsorbent, a diet formulated with corn naturally contaminated with mycotoxin (CCM) and four diets formulated with CCM and added with different commercial adsorbents. At the end of the first week and at 21 days of age of the birds, it was observed that the control diet resulted in greater (p < 0.05) live weight and weight gain in relation to the inclusion of CCM. The relative weight of the liver was lower for the control group compared to the groups receiving a diet with CCM and CCM + ads D. The relative weight of the proventriculus and cloacal bursa was lower for the control group compared to those who received a diet with CCM + ads B and CCM + ads C. There was no significant effect (p > 0.05) of the diets on the analysis of serum biochemistry and the occurrence of fatty and hydropic degeneration in the liver of broilers. The use of adsorbents can mitigate the harmful effects of mycotoxins, however, these products have specific binding capacity to the type of mycotoxin present in food.

Effect of adsorbents on diets with corn contaminated by mycotoxins on the productive performance and health of broilers

A total of 1,296 broiler chicken were housed, distributed in a completely randomized design with 6 treatments and 6 repetitions. The treatments consisted of a control diet formulated with corn considered adequate and without the addition of adsorbent, a diet formulated with corn naturally contaminated with mycotoxin (CCM) and four diets formulated with CCM and added with different commercial adsorbents. At the end of the first week and at 21 days of age of the birds, it was observed that the control diet resulted in greater (p < 0.05) live weight and weight gain in relation to the inclusion of CCM. The relative weight of the liver was lower for the control group compared to the groups receiving a diet with CCM and CCM + ads D. The relative weight of the proventriculus and cloacal bursa was lower for the control group compared to those who received a diet with CCM + ads B and CCM+ ads C. There was no significant effect (p > 0.05) of the diets on the analysis of serum biochemistry and the occurrence of fatty and hydropic degeneration in the liver of broilers. The use of adsorbents can mitigate the harmful effects of mycotoxins, however, these products have specific binding capacity to the type of mycotoxin present in food.(AU)

Effect of adsorbents on diets with corn contaminated by mycotoxins on the productive performance and health of broilers

A total of 1,296 broiler chicken were housed, distributed in a completely randomized design with 6 treatments and 6 repetitions. The treatments consisted of a control diet formulated with corn considered adequate and without the addition of adsorbent, a diet formulated with corn naturally contaminated with mycotoxin (CCM) and four diets formulated with CCM and added with different commercial adsorbents. At the end of the first week and at 21 days of age of the birds, it was observed that the control diet resulted in greater (p < 0.05) live weight and weight gain in relation to the inclusion of CCM. The relative weight of the liver was lower for the control group compared to the groups receiving a diet with CCM and CCM + ads D. The relative weight of the proventriculus and cloacal bursa was lower for the control group compared to those who received a diet with CCM + ads B and CCM + ads C. There was no significant effect (p > 0.05) of the diets on the analysis of serum biochemistry and the occurrence of fatty and hydropic degeneration in the liver of broilers. The use of adsorbents can mitigate the harmful effects of mycotoxins, however, these products have specific binding capacity to the type of mycotoxin present in food.(AU)

Effect of adsorbents on diets with corn contaminated by mycotoxins on the productive performance and health of broilers / Effect of adsorbents on diets with corn contaminated by mycotoxins on the productive performance and health of broilers

A total of 1,296 broiler chicken were housed, distributed in a completely randomized design with 6 treatments and 6 repetitions. The treatments consisted of a control diet formulated with corn considered adequate and without the addition of adsorbent, a diet formulated with corn naturally contaminated with mycotoxin (CCM) and four diets formulated with CCM and added with different commercial adsorbents. At the end of the first week and at 21 days of age of the birds, it was observed that the control diet resulted in greater (p < 0.05) live weight and weight gain in relation to the inclusion of CCM. The relative weight of the liver was lower for the control group compared to the groups receiving a diet with CCM and CCM + ads D. The relative weight of the proventriculus and cloacal bursa was lower for the control group compared to those who received a diet with CCM + ads B and CCM + ads C. There was no significant effect (p > 0.05) of the diets on the analysis of serum biochemistry and the occurrence of fatty and hydropic degeneration in the liver of broilers. The use of adsorbents can mitigate the harmful effects of mycotoxins, however, these products have specific binding capacity to the type of mycotoxin present in food.

A total of 1,296 broiler chicken were housed, distributed in a completely randomized design with 6 treatments and 6 repetitions. The treatments consisted of a control diet formulated with corn considered adequate and without the addition of adsorbent, a diet formulated with corn naturally contaminated with mycotoxin (CCM) and four diets formulated with CCM and added with different commercial adsorbents. At the end of the first week and at 21 days of age of the birds, it was observed that the control diet resulted in greater (p < 0.05) live weight and weight gain in relation to the inclusion of CCM. The relative weight of the liver was lower for the control group compared to the groups receiving a diet with CCM and CCM + ads D. The relative weight of the proventriculus and cloacal bursa was lower for the control group compared to those who received a diet with CCM + ads B and CCM + ads C. There was no significant effect (p > 0.05) of the diets on the analysis of serum biochemistry and the occurrence of fatty and hydropic degeneration in the liver of broilers. The use of adsorbents can mitigate the harmful effects of mycotoxins, however, these products have specific binding capacity to the type of mycotoxin present in food.

Ecophysiology of Fusarium chaquense a Novel Type A Trichothecene Producer Species Isolated from Natural Grasses.

Fusarium chaquense, a recently formally described novel species, has been identified as an T-2 toxin (T-2), HT-2 toxin (HT-2) and other toxins producer in natural grasses (Poaceae) from Argentina. The major objective of this study was to describe the effect of water activity (aW, 0.995, 0.98, 0.95, 0.93 and 0.91), temperature (15, 25 and 30 °C) and incubation time (5, 15 and 25 days) on growth and to evaluate the production of T-2, HT-2 toxins and beauvericin (BEA) by two F. chaquense strains in a grass-based media. The results showed a wide range of conditions for F. chaquense growth and mycotoxin production. Both strains had a maximum growth rate at the highest aW (0.995) and 25 °C. Regarding mycotoxin production, more T-2 than the other analysed mycotoxins were produced by the two strains. T-2 production was favoured at 0.995 aW and 30 °C, while HT-2 production at 0.98-0.95 aW and 15 °C. The maximum levels of BEA were produced at 0.995 aW and 25-30 °C. Two-dimensional profiles of aW by temperature interactions were obtained from these data in order to identify areas where conditions indicate a significant risk of mycotoxins accumulation on grass. For its versatility on growth and mycotoxin production in a wide range of aW and temperatures, F. chaquense would have an adaptive advantage over other Fusarium species, and this would explain its high frequency of isolation in natural grasses grown up in the Chaco wetlands.

Mycotoxin Co-Occurrence in Milks and Exposure Estimation: A Pilot Study in São Paulo, Brazil.

The aim of this study was to conduct a first evaluation on the co-occurrence of aflatoxins (AF) M1, B1, B2, G1 and G2; fumonisins (F) B1 and B2; deoxynivalenol (DON); de-epoxydeoxinivalenol (DOM-1); ochratoxin A (OTA); zearalenone (ZEN); α-zearalenol (α-ZEL); and ß-zearalenol (ß-ZEL) in 68 samples of fluid milk consumed in Pirassununga, São Paulo, Brazil. The probable daily intake (PDI) was also calculated for each mycotoxin evaluated. Mycotoxins were determined by liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry. Sixty-two (91.2%) samples contained at least one type of mycotoxin. AFM1 was found in 6 samples (8.8%), and none of them presented concentrations above the Brazilian maximum permitted level in milk (500 ng/L). Low levels of non-regulated mycotoxins DOM-1, OTA, FB1, FB2, α-ZEL and ß-ZEL were found in 6 (8.8%), 17 (25%), 10 (14.7%), 3 (4.4%), 39 (57.4%) and 28 (41.2%) samples of milk, respectively. None of the PDIs calculated for the quantified mycotoxins were above recommended values, indicating low exposure through milk consumption in the area studied. However, 21 samples (30.9%) contained 2-4 types of mycotoxins, which warrants concern about the potential adverse effects of mycotoxin mixtures in milks.

Impact of deoxynivalenol on intestinal explants of broiler chickens: An ex vivo model to assess antimycotoxins additives.

The impact of deoxynivalenol (DON) upon intestinal tissue of broilers was assessed by using jejunal explants in Ussing chambers and analyzing histopathological and immunohistochemical parameters; this system was also applied to evaluate the efficacy of an antimycotoxins additive (AMA). The explants were subjected to the following treatments within each experiment for 120 min: Experiment 1) T1 (control) - buffer solution, and T2 - 10 mg/L DON; and Experiment 2) T1 (control) - buffer solution, T2 - 10 mg/L DON, T3 - AMA (0.5%), and T4 - 10 mg/L DON + 0.5% AMA. In Experiment 1, DON triggered a reduction in the size of enterocytes as well as of their nuclei, an increase in cytoplasmic vacuolization and apical denudation of villi. Apoptotic cells count was also greater in DON-exposed explants. In Experiment 2, the AMA mitigated DON harmful effects; cytoplasmic vacuolization of enterocytes was reduced and the size of their nuclei was preserved. The additive also promoted a partial decrease in microvillus integrity, in size of enterocytes and in apoptotic cells count. The tested ex vivo model demonstrated the impact of DON upon the intestine as well as the efficacy of the AMA against its damaging effects.

Fusarium graminearum species complex occurrence on soybean and F. graminearum sensu stricto inoculum maintenance on residues in soybean-wheat rotation under field conditions.

AIMS: The aims of this study were to determine the occurrence of Fusarium graminearum species complex (FGSC) on soybean pods, seeds and roots, including rhizoplane, during the period of soybean crop in rotation with wheat and to evaluate the FGSC dynamics on wheat and soybean residues during two soybean growing seasons in rotation with wheat, particularly F. graminearum sensu stricto (FGss). METHODS AND RESULTS: Soybean roots, pods and seeds were analysed during 2012/13 and 2013/14 seasons. The morphological identification of FGSC and mycotoxin analysis was done. Crop residues were taken in both soybean season in wheat rotation and FGss were quantificated by real-time PCR. The results showed that Fusarium species, mainly FGSC, survive in a soybean crop in rotation with wheat. Isolation frequency of these species was higher on soybean pods than on seeds at R6 stage. Deoxynivalenol contamination on soybean seeds was higher in the 2013/14 season in comparison with the 2012/13 season. Low isolation levels of Fusarium species and species that did not belong to FGSC were observed in soybean root, whereas in rhizoplane a higher level was observed. Fusarium species inoculum on residues remained stable during crop succession and the FGSC were recovered from both wheat and soybean residues. Real time PCR data showed a higher DNA concentration of FGss in wheat residues in the first developmental stages of soybean plants, being the levels more significant during 2012/13 season. With regard to soybean residues collected during the wheat growing stages, an increase in DNA from anthesis until wheat harvest was observed. CONCLUSIONS: In a no-till production system, the populations of FGSC can colonize wheat and soybean residues to become an inoculum source. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: This study provides new data on the occurrence of FGSC populations in soybean plant and FGss on residues in soybean-wheat rotation, a cultural practice commonly used in in Argentina.

Dietary exposure assessment and risk characterization of mycotoxins in lactating women: Case study of São Paulo state, Brazil.

The exposure and risk characterization of lactating women to aflatoxins (AFs), fumonisins (FBs), ochratoxin A (OTA) and zearalenone (ZEN) due to consumption of different types of food products in Pirassununga, São Paulo, Brazil, was assessed. Lactating women (N = 74) provided samples of foods stored and available at their households between April-August/2018, totaling 184 samples. Mycotoxins were determined in food samples by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. According to findings, 20% (n = 36) of all food samples were contaminated with AFs at median concentrations ranging from 9.2 to 18.5 µg/kg, while OTA was detected only in three samples (rice, bread and pasta) at concentrations of 22.3, 23.8 and 48.7 µg/kg, respectively. ZEN was detected in 34 samples (18%) at median levels of 62-195 µg/kg, and FBs at median levels of 58-1546 µg/kg was observed in 22 samples (12%). Moreover, the concentration of AFs, OTA, ZEN and FBs exceeded their respective maximum permitted levels in 11 (6%), 3 (2%), 8 (4%) and 5 (3%) from total samples, respectively. Twenty-eight samples (15%) were contaminated with two or three types of mycotoxins. Corn products contributed for the highest mean probable daily intakes (PDI) of AFs (0.119 ± 0.193 µg/kg body weight (bw)/day), ZEN (0.325 ± 0.097 µg/kg bw/day) and FBs (2.936 ± 1.541 µg/kg bw/day), while wheat-based products contributed for the highest PDI of OTA (0.035 ± 0.028 µg/kg bw/day). The Margin of Exposure (MoE) value for AFs (3.72) demonstrated a high cancer risk (MoE < 10,000), and the Hazard Quotient (HQ) obtained for OTA (24.66), ZEN (4.24) and total FBs (5.01) also resulted in a non-tolerable risk (HQ > 1) via consumption of the investigated food products. Results of this trial indicate high exposure levels of lactating women to dietary mycotoxins in the studied area, which warrant concern about the possible transfer of residual mycotoxins into breast milk.

TRI Genotyping and Chemotyping: A Balance of Power.

Fusarium is among the top 10 most economically important plant pathogens in the world. Trichothecenes are the principal mycotoxins produced as secondary metabolites by select species of Fusarium and cause acute and chronic toxicity in animals and humans upon exposure either through consumption and/or contact. There are over 100 trichothecene metabolites and they can occur in a wide range of commodities that form food and feed products. This review discusses strategies to mitigate the risk of mycotoxin production and exposure by examining the Fusarium-trichothecene model. Fundamental to mitigation of risk is knowing the identity of the pathogen. As such, a comparison of current, recommended molecular approaches for sequence-based identification of Fusaria is presented, followed by an analysis of the rationale and methods of trichothecene (TRI) genotyping and chemotyping. This type of information confirms the source and nature of risk. While both are powerful tools for informing regulatory decisions, an assessment of the causes of incongruence between TRI genotyping and chemotyping data must be made. Reconciliation of this discordance will map the way forward in terms of optimization of molecular approaches, which includes data validation and sharing in the form of accessible repositories of genomic data and browsers for querying such data.

Fusarium incarnatum-equiseti species complex associated with Brazilian rice: Phylogeny, morphology and toxigenic potential.

Fusarium incarnatum-equiseti species complex (FIESC) is commonly detected in Brazilian rice, but knowledge of the species limits and their toxigenic potential is lacking. Seventy strains morphologically identified as FIESC-like, isolated from the major rice-growing regions of Brazil, were subjected to sequencing of EF-1α gene. Among them, 18 strains were selected and analyzed for their RPB2 gene sequences. Nine phylogenetic species were identified, among which eight matched the previously reported FIESC 4 (F. lacertarum), 6, 16, 17 (F. pernambucanum), 20 (F. caatingaense), 24, 26 and 29. One new phylogenetic species was identified, and named FIESC 38. Five strains formed new singleton lineages. The most dominant species were FIESC 26 (22/70 strains) and FIESC 38 (21/70), the newly identified species. The incarnatum morphotype was dominant (10 phylogenetic species) over the equiseti (4 species). Among 46 strains selected to represent all species, only 16 strains produced detectable levels of mycotoxins in vitro. FIESC 26 produced ZEA and FIESC 38 produced both ZEA and DON. ZEA was produced by nine isolates of three other species, among which few isolates produced trichothecenes: DON (5/46), NIV (3/46), 4-ANIV (2/46), 15-ADON (1/46) and 3-ADON (1/46). The T-2 and HT-2 mycotoxins were not detected. Our results contribute novel information on species limits and mycotoxin production within cereal-infecting FIESC in the southern hemisphere and provide baseline data for further exploring morphological differences among the species.

Influence of water activity and temperature on growth and production of trichothecenes by Fusarium graminearum sensu stricto and related species in maize grains.

Fusarium meridionale and F. boothii cause Gibberella Ear Rot (GER) in maize. This study determined the effects of temperature (5-35 °C) and water activity (0.90-0.995 aw) on the growth, and deoxynivalenol (DON) and nivalenol (NIV) production of F. meridionale and F. boothii strains in maize grains. Fusarium graminearum sensu stricto strains from wheat were also tested. The three Fusarium species grew best at 0.995 aw and 25 °C. Growth was absent or marginal at 0.90 aw regardless of temperature. F. meridionale and F. boothii were sensitive to 30 °C and more affected by water stress than F. graminearum sensu stricto. The highest DON levels were at 0.995-0.97 aw and 30 °C and at 0.97 aw and 20 °C for F. graminearum sensu stricto, and at 0.995-0.97 aw and 20 °C for F. boothii. Fusarium meridionale reached maximum NIV accumulation at 0.995 aw and 20 °C. This produced DON at negligible levels compared to the other two Fusarium species. Growth of F. meridionale and F. boothii was well adapted to the usual autumn high humidity and mild temperatures associated with GER in northwest Argentina. Control strategies during grain development should be taken into account to reduce the risk of the presence of DON and NIV in the harvested grains.

Selection of Fusarium Trichothecene Toxin Genes for Molecular Detection Depends on TRI Gene Cluster Organization and Gene Function.

Food security is a global concern. Fusarium are among the most economically important fungal pathogens because they are ubiquitous, disease management remains a challenge, they produce mycotoxins that affect food and feed safety, and trichothecene mycotoxin production can increase the pathogenicity of some Fusarium species depending on the host species. Although trichothecenes may differ in structure by their patterns of hydroxylation or acetylation, these small changes have a significant impact on toxicity and the biological activity of these compounds. Therefore, detecting and identifying which chemotype is present in a given population are important to predicting the specific toxins that may be produced and, therefore, to evaluating the risk of exposure. Due to the challenges of inducing trichothecene production by Fusarium isolates in vitro for subsequent chemical analysis, PCR assays using gene-specific primers, either singly or in combination, designed against specific genes of the trichothecene gene cluster of multiple species of Fusarium have been developed. The establishment of TRI genotypes that potentially correspond to a specific chemotype requires examination of an information and knowledge pipeline whose critical aspects in sequential order are: (i) understanding the TRI gene cluster organization which differs according to Fusarium species under study; (ii) knowledge of the re-arrangements to the core TRI gene cluster over evolutionary time, which also differs according to Fusarium species; (iii) the functions of the TRI genes in the biosynthesis of trichothecene analogs; and (iv) based on (i)⁻(iii), selection of appropriate target TRI gene(s) for primer design in PCR amplification for the Fusarium species under study. This review, therefore, explains this pipeline and its connection to utilizing TRI genotypes as a possible proxy to chemotype designation.

Occurrence of deoxynivalenol and zearalenone in brewing barley grains from Brazil.

Barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) is an important cereal crop for food and represents one of the main ingredients in beer production. Considering the importance of barley and its derived products, the knowledge about the mycotoxin contamination in the barley production is essential in order to assess its safety. In this study, the levels of deoxynivalenol (DON) and zearalenone (ZEN) in brewing barley were determined using a LC-MS/MS method. A survey was conducted in 2015 to estimate the mycotoxin levels in these products (n = 76) from four crop regions in Brazil. The results showed high levels of DON and ZEN in the analyzed samples, with contamination levels of 94 and 73.6%, respectively. The mean levels of DON and ZEN ranged from 1700 to 7500 µg/kg and from 300 to 630 µg/kg, respectively. Barley samples from regions 1 and 2 presented higher levels of ZEN and DON, respectively, and those from region 4 presented lower levels of both. Co-occurrence of DON and ZEN was seen in the majority of the barley grain samples, and the mycotoxin content was above the maximum levels established by the Brazilian and European regulations.

Mycotoxins in broiler production / Micotoxinas na produção de frangos de corte

The occurrence of mycotoxins has become a problem to be discussed, due to its harmfulness to humans and animals health, and may be an obstacle to the poultry economy. Mycotoxins are toxic metabolites produced by certain species of fungi and may contaminate food. Aflatoxins are mainly produced by Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus, and B1, B2, G1 and G2 are its best known types. Fumonisin, with its B1, B2 or B3 types, are produced by Fusarium, while ochratoxin A is produced by Penicillium and Aspergillus. The main trichothecenes mycotoxins are T-2 toxin, deoxynivalenol and diacetoxyscirpenol. Zearalenone, produced by different species of Fusarium fungi affects chickens only when they are exposed to extremely high levels of contamination. Generally, immunosuppression, hepatotoxicity and nephrotoxicity as a decrease in performance and production gains are the most observed effects. There are several laboratory methods that can be used for the determination of mycotoxins. In order to control the contamination, it is necessary to adopt proper farming practices which prevent fungi growth. Once grains and feed are contaminated, biological, physical and/or chemical decontamination methods may be employed, although the physical process with adsorbents mixed to the feed is more widely used. Due to the importance of mycotoxins to poultry production, it is necessary to adopt measures to prevent contamination, and also develop a control and an anti-fungal growth and toxin production program by reviewing the critical points favorable to the emergence of toxin-producing fungi.

A ocorrência de micotoxinas tornou-se um problema a ser discutido, pois representa riscos à saúde dos animais e humanos, podendo constituir um obstáculo à economia avícola. Micotoxinas são metabólitos tóxicos produzidos por algumas espécies de fungos e podem contaminar os alimentos. Aflatoxinas são majoritariamente produzidas por Aspergillus flavus e Aspergillus parasiticus, sendo B1, B2, G1 e G2 os tipos mais conhecidos. Fumonisinas são do tipo B1, B2 e B3, e produzidas pelo gênero Fusarium, enquanto a ocratoxina A é produzida por fungos da espécie Penicillium e Aspergillus. As principais micotoxinas dos tricotecenos são toxina T-2, deoxynivalenol e diacetoxyscirpenol. A zearalenona, produzida por diferentes espécies de fungos do gênero Fusarium, afeta os frangos apenas quando estes são expostos a níveis extremamente altos de contaminação. De modo geral, são observados efeitos imunossupressores, hepatotóxicos e nefrotóxicos, com queda no desempenho e nos ganhos de produção. Vários são os métodos laboratoriais que podem ser utilizados para a determinação de micotoxinas. Para o controle da contaminação, é necessário adoção de práticas agrícolas correta, com vistas à prevenção do crescimento de fungos. Após a contaminação de grãos e rações, métodos de descontaminação, biológicos, físicos e/ou químicos podem ser empregados, embora o processo físico com adsorventes misturados às rações seja o mais utilizado. Pela importância que as micotoxinas representam à produção de frangos, é necessário adotar medidas que previnam a contaminação e desenvolver programas de controle e combate ao desenvolvimento fúngico e produção de toxinas, revendo os pontos críticos propícios ao aparecimento dos fungos geradores das toxinas.

Mycotoxins in broiler production / Micotoxinas na produção de frangos de corte

The occurrence of mycotoxins has become a problem to be discussed, due to its harmfulness to humans and animals health, and may be an obstacle to the poultry economy. Mycotoxins are toxic metabolites produced by certain species of fungi and may contaminate food. Aflatoxins are mainly produced by Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus, and B1, B2, G1 and G2 are its best known types. Fumonisin, with its B1, B2 or B3 types, are produced by Fusarium, while ochratoxin A is produced by Penicillium and Aspergillus. The main trichothecenes mycotoxins are T-2 toxin, deoxynivalenol and diacetoxyscirpenol. Zearalenone, produced by different species of Fusarium fungi affects chickens only when they are exposed to extremely high levels of contamination. Generally, immunosuppression, hepatotoxicity and nephrotoxicity as a decrease in performance and production gains are the most observed effects. There are several laboratory methods that can be used for the determination of mycotoxins. In order to control the contamination, it is necessary to adopt proper farming practices which prevent fungi growth. Once grains and feed are contaminated, biological, physical and/or chemical decontamination methods may be employed, although the physical process with adsorbents mixed to the feed is more widely used. Due to the importance of mycotoxins to poultry production, it is necessary to adopt measures to prevent contamination, and also develop a control and an anti-fungal growth and toxin production program by reviewing the critical points favorable to the emergence of toxin-producing fungi.(AU)

A ocorrência de micotoxinas tornou-se um problema a ser discutido, pois representa riscos à saúde dos animais e humanos, podendo constituir um obstáculo à economia avícola. Micotoxinas são metabólitos tóxicos produzidos por algumas espécies de fungos e podem contaminar os alimentos. Aflatoxinas são majoritariamente produzidas por Aspergillus flavus e Aspergillus parasiticus, sendo B1, B2, G1 e G2 os tipos mais conhecidos. Fumonisinas são do tipo B1, B2 e B3, e produzidas pelo gênero Fusarium, enquanto a ocratoxina A é produzida por fungos da espécie Penicillium e Aspergillus. As principais micotoxinas dos tricotecenos são toxina T-2, deoxynivalenol e diacetoxyscirpenol. A zearalenona, produzida por diferentes espécies de fungos do gênero Fusarium, afeta os frangos apenas quando estes são expostos a níveis extremamente altos de contaminação. De modo geral, são observados efeitos imunossupressores, hepatotóxicos e nefrotóxicos, com queda no desempenho e nos ganhos de produção. Vários são os métodos laboratoriais que podem ser utilizados para a determinação de micotoxinas. Para o controle da contaminação, é necessário adoção de práticas agrícolas correta, com vistas à prevenção do crescimento de fungos. Após a contaminação de grãos e rações, métodos de descontaminação, biológicos, físicos e/ou químicos podem ser empregados, embora o processo físico com adsorventes misturados às rações seja o mais utilizado. Pela importância que as micotoxinas representam à produção de frangos, é necessário adotar medidas que previnam a contaminação e desenvolver programas de controle e combate ao desenvolvimento fúngico e produção de toxinas, revendo os pontos críticos propícios ao aparecimento dos fungos geradores das toxinas.(AU)

Survey of mycotoxins in Southern Brazilian wheat and evaluation of immunoassay methods

One hundred commercial wheat grain samples were collected during the 2015 sea-son across 78 municipalities in the states of Paraná (PR), Rio Grande do Sul (RS), and São Paulo (SP), Brazil. Separate subsamples were analyzed for the concentration of deoxynivalenol (DON), zearalenona (ZEA) and ochratoxin A (OTA) mycotoxins using two methods: UHPLC-MS/MS (reference method) and a commercial enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) (AgraQuant®). The OTA mycotoxin was not found in the samples by both methods. DON and ZEA were detected in 55 % and 39 % of the samples by the reference method, with overall mean levels of 795.2 g kg1 and 79.78 g kg1, respectively. There was a significant and positive correlation (Spearman rank) between DON and ZEA estimates by the reference method (r = 0.77, p 0.001). The DON levels estimated by the immunoassay agreed poorly with the reference, being largely overestimated. Based on a cut-off level of 1000 g kg1, the immunoassay correctly classified 57 samples as true negatives and 15 as true positives. Only 28 were classified as false positives. For ZEA, the levels estimated by the two methods were in better agreement than for DON. Using the cut-off level of 200 g kg1, 96 % of the samples were classified correctly as true positives and only one sample was classified as false positive. The levels for both mycotoxins were mostly acceptable for human consumption. Further studies should focus on multi-toxin methods compared with immunoassays to understand the reasons of overestimation and the role of immunoassays as a cost-effective solution for fast screening of mycotoxins in the food chain.

Survey of mycotoxins in Southern Brazilian wheat and evaluation of immunoassay methods

One hundred commercial wheat grain samples were collected during the 2015 sea-son across 78 municipalities in the states of Paraná (PR), Rio Grande do Sul (RS), and São Paulo (SP), Brazil. Separate subsamples were analyzed for the concentration of deoxynivalenol (DON), zearalenona (ZEA) and ochratoxin A (OTA) mycotoxins using two methods: UHPLC-MS/MS (reference method) and a commercial enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) (AgraQuant®). The OTA mycotoxin was not found in the samples by both methods. DON and ZEA were detected in 55 % and 39 % of the samples by the reference method, with overall mean levels of 795.2 g kg1 and 79.78 g kg1, respectively. There was a significant and positive correlation (Spearman rank) between DON and ZEA estimates by the reference method (r = 0.77, p 0.001). The DON levels estimated by the immunoassay agreed poorly with the reference, being largely overestimated. Based on a cut-off level of 1000 g kg1, the immunoassay correctly classified 57 samples as true negatives and 15 as true positives. Only 28 were classified as false positives. For ZEA, the levels estimated by the two methods were in better agreement than for DON. Using the cut-off level of 200 g kg1, 96 % of the samples were classified correctly as true positives and only one sample was classified as false positive. The levels for both mycotoxins were mostly acceptable for human consumption. Further studies should focus on multi-toxin methods compared with immunoassays to understand the reasons of overestimation and the role of immunoassays as a cost-effective solution for fast screening of mycotoxins in the food chain.(AU)