Cost utility of penicillin use in primary care for the prevention of complications associated with syphilis / Custo-utilidade do uso da penicilina na atenção primária para a prevenção de complicações associadas à sífilis congênita

Introduction: Despite penicillin being the drug of choice for the treatment of syphilis, many pregnant women who test positive for syphilis do not receive the drug as recommended by the Ministry of Health, contributing to the increase in costs associated with congenital syphilis. Objective: This study aims to estimate the incremental cost-effectiveness ratio of administering at least one dose of 2.4 million IU of benzathine penicillin in the first trimester of pregnancy as soon as the result of a positive rapid treponemal test performed during antenatal care in primary care units of the Brazilian National Health System. Methods: An analytical model was proposed based on a decision tree. The perspective of the analysis was the one used in The Brazilian National Health System. The clinical outcomes were abortion, prematurity, neonatal death, stillbirth, and congenital syphilis, estimated in terms of disability-adjusted life-years. Only direct costs were considered. Deterministic and probabilistic sensitivity analyses were performed. Results: The model predicted that the most efficient strategy is the one that includes the administration of penicillin in primary care for cases of gestational syphilis. This strategy is more effective, although more costly. The cost per disability-adjusted life-years averted with the use of this strategy was estimated at R$49.79 (US$ 10.67). Conclusion: The prenatal strategy in primary care units that includes the administration of penicillin to pregnant women with syphilis during the first trimester of pregnancy has the greatest potential to be cost-effective.

Introdução: A despeito de a penicilina ser o medicamento de escolha para o tratamento da sífilis, muitas gestantes com teste positivo para sífilis não recebem o medicamento como recomendado pelo Ministério da Saúde, concorrendo para o aumento dos custos associados à sífilis congênita. Objetivo: Estimar a razão de custo-efetividade incremental da administração de pelo menos uma dose de 2,4 milhões de Unidades Internacionais de penicilina benzatina no primeiro trimestre de gravidez, tão logo se tenha o resultado de um teste rápido treponêmico positivo realizado na consulta pré-natal em unidades de atenção primária do Sistema Único de Saúde. Métodos: Um modelo analítico foi proposto a partir de uma árvore de decisão. A perspectiva da análise foi a do Sistema Único de Saúde. Os desfechos em saúde foram aborto, prematuridade, morte neonatal, natimorto e sífilis congênita, estimados em termos de anos de vida ajustados a incapacidades (disability-adjusted life-years). Apenas os custos diretos foram considerados. Análises de sensibilidade determinística e probabilística foram realizadas. Resultados: O modelo previu que a estratégia mais eficiente é aquela que inclui a administração da penicilina na atenção primária aos casos de sífilis gestacional. Embora essa estratégia possa representar maior custo, apresenta maior efetividade. O custo por disability-adjusted life-years evitado com o uso dessa estratégia foi estimado em R$49,79. Conclusão: A estratégia de pré-natal nas unidades de atenção primária que inclui a administração da penicilina em gestantes com sífilis ainda no primeiro trimestre de gestação é a que apresenta o maior potencial para ser custo-efetiva.

Echo-based screening of rheumatic heart disease in children: a cost-effectiveness Markov model.

OBJECTIVES: To project the cost-effectiveness of population-based echo screening to prevent rheumatic heart disease (RHD) consequences. BACKGROUND: RHD is a leading cause of cardiovascular mortality and morbidity during adolescence and young adulthood in low- and middle-per capita income settings. Echocardiography-based screening approaches can dramatically expand the number of children identified at risk of progressive RHD. Cost-effectiveness analysis can inform public health agencies and payers about the net economic benefit of such large-scale population-based screening. METHODS: A Markov model was constructed comparing a no-screen to echo screen approach. The echo screen program was modeled as a 2-staged screen of a cohort of 11-year-old children with initial short screening performed by dedicated technicians and follow-up complete echo by cardiologists. Penicillin RHD prophylaxis was modeled to only reduce rheumatic fever recurrence-related exacerbation. Quality-adjusted life years (QALYs) and societal costs (in 2010 Australian dollars) associated with each approach were estimated. One-way, two-way and probabilistic sensitivity analyses were performed on RHD prevalence and transition probabilities; echocardiography test characteristics; and societal level costs including supplies, transportation, and labor. RESULTS: The incremental costs and QALYs of the screen compared to no screen strategy were -$432 (95% CI = -$1357 to $575) and 0.007 (95% CI = -0.0101 to 0.0237), respectively. The joint probability that the screen was both less costly and more effective exceeded 80%. Sensitivity analyses suggested screen strategy dominance depends mostly on the probability of transitioning out of sub-clinical RHD. CONCLUSION: Two-stage echo RHD screening and secondary prophylaxis may achieve modestly improved outcomes at lower cost compared to clinical detection and deserves closer attention from health policy stakeholders.

The cost-effectiveness of single-dose azithromycin for treatment of incubating syphilis.

BACKGROUND: Treatment of incubating syphilis with intramuscular benzathine penicillin in exposed sex partners is not always practical in the field, and exposed partners may not adhere to referrals for treatment at clinical facilities. The availability of a single-dose oral therapy could increase the number of partners treated and reduce future infections. GOAL: The goal of the study was to evaluate the cost-effectiveness of directly observed oral administration of azithromycin as an alternative to referral for treatment with benzathine penicillin. STUDY DESIGN: Using published probability and cost estimates, we constructed a decision-analysis model to compare the direct costs and effectiveness of field treatment with azithromycin (1-g single dose) versus referral for standard benzathine penicillin therapy. RESULTS: At public-sector pricing ($11.50 U.S. dollars), directly observed field treatment with azithromycin is cost-saving from both the program and healthcare system perspectives at efficacy levels as low as 75%. Azithromycin therapy is cost-saving at the wholesale price of $17.32 U.S. dollars (sachet formulation) when efficacy is at least 90%. The more expensive tablet formulation (average wholesale price of $27.89 U.S. dollars) is not cost-saving from a program perspective, but it remains cost-saving from a healthcare system perspective if efficacy rates are at least 90%. Azithromycin therapy (1-g single dose) will result in fewer cases of early syphilis among exposed partners, provided that the drug's efficacy is at least 87%. CONCLUSIONS: Azithromycin is a cost-effective alternative treatment for incubating syphilis in settings where standard intramuscular therapy is not practical.

Office diagnosis and management of group A streptococcal pharyngitis employing the rapid antigen detecting test. A 1-year prospective study of reliability and cost in primary care centres.

The impact of introducing the rapid antigen detecting test for the diagnosis of group A streptococcal pharyngitis in primary care centres and the direct and comprehensive cost-effectiveness of four alternative strategies for the management of group A streptococcal pharyngitis and the prevention of rheumatic fever were assessed in a 1-year prospective randomized study, carried out in children between the ages of 5 and 14 years. Data from the study showed that the test was easy to perform and reliable when introduced as a service in primary care. The strategy of using the rapid antigen detecting test and a 10-day oral penicillin course for diagnosis and treatment proved to be the safest and most cost-effective. If compliance with a 10-day course of oral penicillin is unlikely to be achieved, the strategy of introducing the test and treatment by intramuscular benzathin penicillin G proved to be the second best cost-effective alternative. In developing countries, where acute rheumatic fever is still common and the cost of the test and a 10-day course of penicillin may prove to be formidable, a strategy of treating all children with pharyngitis with intramuscular benzathin penicillin G seems to be the most cost-effective. The strategy of diagnosing group A streptococcal pharyngitis on clinical grounds proved to be the worst.