The RNA-bound proteome of MRSA reveals post-transcriptional roles for helix-turn-helix DNA-binding and Rossmann-fold proteins.

RNA-binding proteins play key roles in controlling gene expression in many organisms, but relatively few have been identified and characterised in detail in Gram-positive bacteria. Here, we globally analyse RNA-binding proteins in methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) using two complementary biochemical approaches. We identify hundreds of putative RNA-binding proteins, many containing unconventional RNA-binding domains such as Rossmann-fold domains. Remarkably, more than half of the proteins containing helix-turn-helix (HTH) domains, which are frequently found in prokaryotic transcription factors, bind RNA in vivo. In particular, the CcpA transcription factor, a master regulator of carbon metabolism, uses its HTH domain to bind hundreds of RNAs near intrinsic transcription terminators in vivo. We propose that CcpA, besides acting as a transcription factor, post-transcriptionally regulates the stability of many RNAs.

Sequence specific integration by the family 1 casposase from Candidatus Nitrosopumilus koreensis AR1.

Casposase, a homolog of Cas1 integrase, is encoded by a superfamily of mobile genetic elements known as casposons. While family 2 casposase has been well documented in both function and structure, little is known about the other three casposase families. Here, we studied the family 1 casposase lacking the helix-turn-helix (HTH) domain from Candidatus Nitrosopumilus koreensis AR1 (Ca. N. koreensis). The determinants for integration by Ca. N. koreensis casposase were extensively investigated, and it was found that a 13-bp target site duplication (TSD) sequence, a minimal 3-bp leader and three different nucleotides of the TSD sequences are indispensable for target specific integration. Significantly, the casposase can site-specifically integrate a broad range of terminal inverted repeat (TIR)-derived oligonucleotides ranging from 7-nt to ∼4000-bp, and various oligonucleotides lacking the 5'-TTCTA-3' motif at the 3' end of TIR sequence can be integrated efficiently. Furthermore, similar to some Cas1 homologs, the casposase utilizes a 5'-ATAA-3' motif in the TSD as a molecular ruler to dictate nucleophilic attack at 9-bp downstream of the end of the ruler during the spacer-side integration. By characterizing the family 1 Ca. N. koreensis casposase, we have extended our understanding on mechanistic similarities and evolutionary connections between casposons and the adaptation elements of CRISPR-Cas immunity.

Conserved L464 in p97 D1-D2 linker is critical for p97 cofactor regulated ATPase activity.

p97 protein is a highly conserved, abundant, functionally diverse, structurally dynamic homohexameric AAA enzyme-containing N, D1, and D2 domains. A truncated p97 protein containing the N and D1 domains and the D1-D2 linker (ND1L) exhibits 79% of wild-type (WT) ATPase activity whereas the ND1 domain alone without the linker only has 2% of WT activity. To investigate the relationship between the D1-D2 linker and the D1 domain, we produced p97 ND1L mutants and demonstrated that this 22-residue linker region is essential for D1 ATPase activity. The conserved amino acid leucine 464 (L464) is critical for regulating D1 and D2 ATPase activity by p97 cofactors p37, p47, and Npl4-Ufd1 (NU). Changing leucine to alanine, proline, or glutamate increased the maximum rate of ATP turnover (kcat) of p47-regulated ATPase activities for these mutants, but not for WT. p37 and p47 increased the kcat of the proline substituted linker, suggesting that they induced linker conformations facilitating ATP hydrolysis. NU inhibited D1 ATPase activities of WT and mutant ND1L proteins, but activated D2 ATPase activity of full-length p97. To further understand the mutant mechanism, we used single-particle cryo-EM to visualize the full-length p97L464P and revealed the conformational change of the D1-D2 linker, resulting in a movement of the helix-turn-helix motif (543-569). Taken together with the biochemical and structural results we conclude that the linker helps maintain D1 in a competent conformation and relays the communication to/from the N-domain to the D1 and D2 ATPase domains, which are ∼50 Šaway.

The ChiS-Family DNA-Binding Domain Contains a Cryptic Helix-Turn-Helix Variant.

Sequence-specific DNA-binding domains (DBDs) are conserved in all domains of life. These proteins carry out a variety of cellular functions, and there are a number of distinct structural domains already described that allow for sequence-specific DNA binding, including the ubiquitous helix-turn-helix (HTH) domain. In the facultative pathogen Vibrio cholerae, the chitin sensor ChiS is a transcriptional regulator that is critical for the survival of this organism in its marine reservoir. We recently showed that ChiS contains a cryptic DBD in its C terminus. This domain is not homologous to any known DBD, but it is a conserved domain present in other bacterial proteins. Here, we present the crystal structure of the ChiS DBD at a resolution of 1.28 Å. We find that the ChiS DBD contains an HTH domain that is structurally similar to those found in other DNA-binding proteins, like the LacI repressor. However, one striking difference observed in the ChiS DBD is that the canonical tight turn of the HTH is replaced with an insertion containing a ß-sheet, a variant which we term the helix-sheet-helix. Through systematic mutagenesis of all positively charged residues within the ChiS DBD, we show that residues within and proximal to the ChiS helix-sheet-helix are critical for DNA binding. Finally, through phylogenetic analyses we show that the ChiS DBD is found in diverse proteobacterial proteins that exhibit distinct domain architectures. Together, these results suggest that the structure described here represents the prototypical member of the ChiS-family of DBDs.IMPORTANCE Regulating gene expression is essential in all domains of life. This process is commonly facilitated by the activity of DNA-binding transcription factors. There are diverse structural domains that allow proteins to bind to specific DNA sequences. The structural basis underlying how some proteins bind to DNA, however, remains unclear. Previously, we showed that in the major human pathogen Vibrio cholerae, the transcription factor ChiS directly regulates gene expression through a cryptic DNA-binding domain. This domain lacked homology to any known DNA-binding protein. In the current study, we determined the structure of the ChiS DNA-binding domain (DBD) and found that the ChiS-family DBD is a cryptic variant of the ubiquitous helix-turn-helix (HTH) domain. We further demonstrate that this domain is conserved in diverse proteins that may represent a novel group of transcriptional regulators.

PoxCbh, a novel CENPB-type HTH domain protein, regulates cellulase and xylanase gene expression in Penicillium oxalicum.

The essential transcription factor PoxCxrA is required for cellulase and xylanase gene expression in the filamentous fungus Penicillium oxalicum that is potentially applied in biotechnological industry as a result of the existence of the integrated cellulolytic and xylolytic system. However, the regulatory mechanism of cellulase and xylanase gene expression specifically associated with PoxCxrA regulation in fungi is poorly understood. In this study, the novel regulator PoxCbh (POX06865), containing a centromere protein B-type helix-turn-helix domain, was identified through screening for the PoxCxrA regulon under Avicel induction and genetic analysis. The mutant ∆PoxCbh showed significant reduction in cellulase and xylanase production, ranging from 28.4% to 59.8%. Furthermore, PoxCbh was found to directly regulate the expression of important cellulase and xylanase genes, as well as the known regulatory genes PoxNsdD and POX02484, and its expression was directly controlled by PoxCxrA. The PoxCbh-binding DNA sequence in the promoter region of the cellobiohydrolase 1 gene cbh1 was identified. These results expand our understanding of the diverse roles of centromere protein B-like protein, the regulatory network of cellulase and xylanase gene expression, and regulatory mechanisms in fungi.

LOTUS domain is a novel class of G-rich and G-quadruplex RNA binding domain.

LOTUS domains are helix-turn-helix protein folds identified in essential germline proteins and are conserved in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Despite originally predicted as an RNA binding domain, its molecular binding activity towards RNA and protein is controversial. In particular, the most conserved binding property for the LOTUS domain family remains unknown. Here, we uncovered an unexpected specific interaction of LOTUS domains with G-rich RNA sequences. Intriguingly, LOTUS domains exhibit high affinity to RNA G-quadruplex tertiary structures implicated in diverse cellular processes including piRNA biogenesis. This novel LOTUS domain-RNA interaction is conserved in bacteria, plants and animals, comprising the most ancient binding feature of the LOTUS domain family. By contrast, LOTUS domains do not preferentially interact with DNA G-quadruplexes. We further show that a subset of LOTUS domains display both RNA and protein binding activities. These findings identify the LOTUS domain as a specialized RNA binding domain across phyla and underscore the molecular mechanism underlying the function of LOTUS domain-containing proteins in RNA metabolism and regulation.

Conformational transitions induced by γ-amino butyrate binding in GabR, a bacterial transcriptional regulator.

GabR from Bacillus subtilis is a transcriptional regulator of the MocR subfamily of GntR regulators. The MocR architecture is characterized by the presence of an N-terminal winged-Helix-Turn-Helix domain and a C-terminal domain folded as the pyridoxal 5'-phosphate (PLP) dependent aspartate aminotransferase (AAT). The two domains are linked by a peptide bridge. GabR activates transcription of genes involved in γ-amino butyrate (GABA) degradation upon binding of PLP and GABA. This work is aimed at contributing to the understanding of the molecular mechanism underlying the GabR transcription activation upon GABA binding. To this purpose, the structure of the entire GabR dimer with GABA external aldimine (holo-GABA) has been reconstructed using available crystallographic data. The structure of the apo (without any ligand) and holo (with PLP) GabR forms have been derived from the holo-GABA. An extensive 1 µs comparative molecular dynamics (MD) has been applied to the three forms. Results showed that the presence of GABA external aldimine stiffens the GabR, stabilizes the AAT domain in the closed form and couples the AAT and HTH domains dynamics. Apo and holo GabR appear more flexible especially at the level of the HTH and linker portions and small AAT subdomain.

An analysis of the IS6/IS26 family of insertion sequences: is it a single family?

The relationships within a curated set of 112 insertion sequences (ISs) currently assigned to the IS6 family, here re-named the IS6/IS26 family, in the ISFinder database were examined. The encoded DDE transposases include a helix-helix-turn-helix (H-HTH) potential DNA binding domain N-terminal to the catalytic (DDE) domain, but 10 from Clostridia include one or two additional N-terminal domains. The transposase phylogeny clearly separated 75 derived from bacteria from 37 from archaea. The longer bacterial transposases also clustered separately. The 65 shorter bacterial transposases, including Tnp26 from IS26, formed six clades but share significant conservation in the H-HTH domain and in a short extension at the N-terminus, and several amino acids in the catalytic domain are completely or highly conserved. At the outer ends of these ISs, 14 bp were strongly conserved as terminal inverted repeats (TIRs) with the first two bases (GG) and the seventh base (G) present in all except one IS. The longer bacterial transposases are only distantly related to the short bacterial transposases, with only some amino acids conserved. The TIR consensus was longer and only one IS started with GG. The 37 archaeal transposases are only distantly related to either the short or the long bacterial transposases and different residues were conserved. Their TIRs are loosely related to the bacterial TIR consensus but are longer and many do not begin with GG. As they do not fit well with most bacterial ISs, the inclusion of the archaeal ISs and the longer bacterial ISs in the IS6/IS26 family is not appropriate.

Structure and DNA damage-dependent derepression mechanism for the XRE family member DG-DdrO.

DdrO is an XRE family transcription repressor that, in coordination with the metalloprotease PprI, is critical in the DNA damage response of Deinococcus species. Here, we report the crystal structure of Deinococcus geothermalis DdrO. Biochemical and structural studies revealed the conserved recognizing α-helix and extended dimeric interaction of the DdrO protein, which are essential for promoter DNA binding. Two conserved oppositely charged residues in the HTH motif of XRE family proteins form salt bridge interactions that are essential for promoter DNA binding. Notably, the C-terminal domain is stabilized by hydrophobic interactions of leucine/isoleucine-rich helices, which is critical for DdrO dimerization. Our findings suggest that DdrO is a novel XRE family transcriptional regulator that forms a distinctive dimer. The structure also provides insight into the mechanism of DdrO-PprI-mediated DNA damage response in Deinococcus.

Complex regulation of LCoR signaling in breast cancer cells.

Ligand-dependent corepressor (LCoR) is a transcriptional repressor of ligand-activated estrogen receptors (ERs) and other transcription factors that acts both by recruiting histone deacetylases and C-terminal binding proteins. Here, we first studied LCOR gene expression in breast cancer cell lines and tissues. We detected two mRNAs variants, LCoR and LCoR2 (which encodes a truncated LCoR protein). Their expression was highly correlated and localized in discrete nuclear foci. LCoR and LCoR2 strongly repressed transcription, inhibited estrogen-induced target gene expression and decreased breast cancer cell proliferation. By mutagenesis analysis, we showed that the helix-turn-helix domain of LCoR is required for these effects. Using in vitro interaction, coimmunoprecipitation, proximity ligation assay and confocal microscopy experiments, we found that receptor-interacting protein of 140 kDa (RIP140) is a LCoR and LCoR2 partner and that this interaction requires the HTH domain of LCoR and RIP140 N- and C-terminal regions. By increasing or silencing LCoR and RIP140 expression in human breast cancer cells, we then showed that RIP140 is necessary for LCoR inhibition of gene expression and cell proliferation. Moreover, LCoR and RIP140 mRNA levels were strongly correlated in breast cancer cell lines and biopsies. In addition, RIP140 positively regulated LCoR expression in human breast cancer cells and in transgenic mouse models. Finally, their expression correlated with overall survival of patients with breast cancer. Taken together, our results provide new insights into the mechanism of action of LCoR and RIP140 and highlight their strong interplay for the control of gene expression and cell proliferation in breast cancer cells.

A new missense mutation in the paired domain of the mouse Pax3 gene.

Mice with dominant white spotting occurred spontaneously in the C3.NSY-(D11Mit74-D11Mit229) strain. Linkage analysis indicated that the locus for white spotting was located in the vicinity of the Pax3 gene on chromosome 1. Crosses of white-spotted mice showed that homozygosity for the mutation caused tail and limb abnormalities and embryonic lethality as a result of exencephaly; these phenotypes were analogous to those found in other Pax3 mutants. Sequence analysis identified a missense point mutation (c.101G>A) in exon 2 of Pax3 that resulted in a methionine to isoleucine conversion at amino acid 62 of the PAX3 protein. This mutation site was located in the N-terminal HTH (helix-turn-helix) motif of the paired domain of Pax3, which is necessary for binding to DNA and is highly conserved in vertebrate species. Alteration of DNA binding affinity was responsible for embryonic lethality in homozygotes and white spotting in heterozygotes. We named the mutant allele as Pax3Sp-Nag. The C3H/HeN-Pax3Sp-Nag strain may be useful for analyzing the function of Pax3 as a new model of the human disease, Waardenburg Syndrome.

bHLH106 Integrates Functions of Multiple Genes through Their G-Box to Confer Salt Tolerance on Arabidopsis.

An activation-tagging methodology was applied to dedifferentiated calli of Arabidopsis to identify new genes involved in salt tolerance. This identified salt tolerant callus 8 (stc8) as a gene encoding the basic helix-loop-helix transcription factor bHLH106. bHLH106-knockout (KO) lines were more sensitive to NaCl, KCl, LiCl, ABA, and low temperatures than the wild-type. Back-transformation of the KO line rescued its phenotype, and over-expression (OX) of bHLH106 in differentiated plants exhibited tolerance to NaCl. Green fluorescent protein (GFP) fused with bHLH106 revealed that it was localized to the nucleus. Prepared bHLH106 protein was subjected to electrophoresis mobility shift assays against E-box sequences (5'-CANNTG-3'). The G-box sequence 5'-CACGTG-3' had the strongest interaction with bHLH106. bHLH106-OX lines were transcriptomically analyzed, and resultant up- and down-regulated genes selected on the criterion of presence of a G-box sequence. There were 198 genes positively regulated by bHLH106 and 36 genes negatively regulated; these genes possessed one or more G-box sequences in their promoter regions. Many of these genes are known to be involved in abiotic stress response. It is concluded that bHLH106 locates at a branching point in the abiotic stress response network by interacting directly to the G-box in genes conferring salt tolerance on plants.

Structural basis for feed-forward transcriptional regulation of membrane lipid homeostasis in Staphylococcus aureus.

The biosynthesis of membrane lipids is an essential pathway for virtually all bacteria. Despite its potential importance for the development of novel antibiotics, little is known about the underlying signaling mechanisms that allow bacteria to control their membrane lipid composition within narrow limits. Recent studies disclosed an elaborate feed-forward system that senses the levels of malonyl-CoA and modulates the transcription of genes that mediate fatty acid and phospholipid synthesis in many Gram-positive bacteria including several human pathogens. A key component of this network is FapR, a transcriptional regulator that binds malonyl-CoA, but whose mode of action remains enigmatic. We report here the crystal structures of FapR from Staphylococcus aureus (SaFapR) in three relevant states of its regulation cycle. The repressor-DNA complex reveals that the operator binds two SaFapR homodimers with different affinities, involving sequence-specific contacts from the helix-turn-helix motifs to the major and minor grooves of DNA. In contrast with the elongated conformation observed for the DNA-bound FapR homodimer, binding of malonyl-CoA stabilizes a different, more compact, quaternary arrangement of the repressor, in which the two DNA-binding domains are attached to either side of the central thioesterase-like domain, resulting in a non-productive overall conformation that precludes DNA binding. The structural transition between the DNA-bound and malonyl-CoA-bound states of SaFapR involves substantial changes and large (>30 Å) inter-domain movements; however, both conformational states can be populated by the ligand-free repressor species, as confirmed by the structure of SaFapR in two distinct crystal forms. Disruption of the ability of SaFapR to monitor malonyl-CoA compromises cell growth, revealing the essentiality of membrane lipid homeostasis for S. aureus survival and uncovering novel opportunities for the development of antibiotics against this major human pathogen.

Molecular identification of an arsenic four-gene operon in Campylobacter lari.

An arsenic (ars) four-gene operon, containing genes encoding a putative membrane permease (ArsP), a transcriptional repressor (ArsR), an arsenate reductase (ArsC) and an arsenical-resistance membrane transporter (Acr3) was first identified in urease-positive thermophilic Campylobacter (UPTC) isolate, CF89-12. UPTC CF89-12 and some other Campylobacter lari isolates contained their ars four-genes, similarly, differing from that in the reference C. lari RM2100 strain. Two putative promoters and a putative terminator were identified for the operon in UPTC CF89-12. In vivo transcription of the operon was confirmed in the UPTC cells. PCR experiments using two primer pairs designed in silico to amplify two arsR and arsC-acr3 segments, respectively, generated two amplicons, approximately 200 and 350 base pairs, with all 31 of 31 and 19 of 31 C. lari isolates (n = 17 for UPTC; n = 14 for UN C. lari), respectively. An inverted repeat forming a dyad structure, a potential binding site for a transcriptional repressor, was identified in the promoter region. Within the deduced 61 amino acids sequence of the putative arsR open reading frame from the UPTC CF89-12, a metal binding box and a DNA-binding helix-turn-helix motif were identified. The UPTC CF89-12 and some other UPTC isolates isolated from natural environment were resistant to arsenate.

Regulon controlled by the GppX hybrid two component system in Porphyromonas gingivalis.

The periodontal pathogen Porphyromonas gingivalis experiences a number of environmental conditions in the oral cavity, and must monitor and respond to a variety of environmental cues. However, the organism possesses only five full two-component systems, one of which is the hybrid system GppX. To investigate the regulon controlled by GppX we performed RNA-Seq on a ΔGppX mutant. Fifty-three genes were upregulated and 37 genes were downregulated in the ΔGppX mutant. Pathway analyses revealed no systemic function for GppX under nutrient-replete conditions; however, over 40% of the differentially abundant genes were annotated as encoding hypothetical proteins indicating a novel role for GppX. Abundance of small RNA was, in general, not affected by the absence of GppX. To further define the role of GppX with respect to regulation of a hypothetical protein observed with the greatest significant relative abundance change relative to a wild-type control, PGN_0151, we constructed a series of strains in which the ΔgppX mutation was complemented with a GppX protein containing specific domain and phosphotransfer mutations. The transmembrane domains, the DNA-binding domain and the phosphotransfer residues were all required for regulation of PGN_0151. In addition, binding of GppX to the PGN_0151 promoter regions was confirmed by an electrophoretic mobility shift assay. Both the ΔGppX mutant and a ΔPGN_0151 mutant were deficient in monospecies biofilm formation, suggesting a role for the GppX-PGN_0151 regulon in colonization and survival of the organism.

The linker sequence, joining the DNA-binding domain of the homologous transcription factors, Mlc and NagC, to the rest of the protein, determines the specificity of their DNA target recognition in Escherichia coli.

Protein-DNA recognition is fundamental to transcriptional regulation. Transcription factors must be capable of locating their specific sites situated throughout the genome and distinguishing them from related sites. Mlc and NagC control uptake and use of the sugars, glucose and N-acetylglucosamine. Both their helix-turn-helix motifs and their consensus binding sites on DNA are very similar. One distinguishing feature is that most NagC sites have a C/G bp at positions -11 and +11 from the centre of symmetry of the operator, while all Mlc sites have A/T. By constructing Mlc and NagC chimeras, we show that the helix-turn-helix motif per se is not responsible for specific recognition of Mlc or NagC sites, but that a linker, joining the DNA-binding domain to the rest of the protein, is the major determinant. We show that a change of just two amino acids in the NagC linker is sufficient to allow NagC to recognize an A/T bp at positions +/-11 and repress Mlc targets. Modelling of the NagC linker suggests that it forms an extended structure containing two arginines and we suggest that these arginines interact differently with the minor groove at positions +/-11 depending upon the presence of a C/G or A/T bp.

Mechanism for regulation of the putrescine utilization pathway by the transcription factor PuuR in Escherichia coli K-12.

In Escherichia coli, putrescine is metabolized to succinate for use as a carbon and nitrogen source by the putrescine utilization pathway (Puu pathway). One gene in the puu gene cluster encodes a transcription factor, PuuR, which has a helix-turn-helix DNA-binding motif. DNA microarray analysis of an E. coli puuR mutant, in which three amino acid residues in the helix-turn-helix DNA binding motif of PuuR were mutated to alanine to eliminate DNA binding of PuuR, suggested that PuuR is a negative regulator of puu genes. Results of gel shift and DNase I footprint analyses suggested that PuuR binds to the promoter regions of puuA and puuD. The binding of wild-type PuuR to a DNA probe containing PuuR recognition sites was diminished with increasing putrescine concentrations in vitro. These results suggest that PuuR regulates the intracellular putrescine concentration by the transcriptional regulation of genes in the Puu pathway, including puuR itself. The puu gene cluster is found in E. coli and closely related enterobacteria, but this gene cluster is uncommon in other bacterial groups. E. coli and related enterobacteria may have gained the Puu pathway as an adaptation for survival in the mammalian intestine, an environment in which polyamines exist at relatively high concentrations.

Induction of neural differentiation by the transcription factor neuroD2.

Pro-neural basic helix loop helix (bHLH) transcription factors are involved in many aspects of normal neuronal development, and over-expression of genes for several of these factors has been shown to induce aspects of neuronal differentiation in cell lines and stem cells. Here we show that over-expression of NeuroD2 (ND2), Neurogenin1 and 2 leads to morphological differentiation of N18-RE-105 neuroblastoma cells and increased expression of synaptic proteins. Particularly ND2 induced neurite formation and increases in the expression of synaptic proteins such as synaptotagmin, that is not expressed normally in this cell type, as well as the redistribution of another synaptic protein, SNAP25, to a cell membrane location. Infection of human neural progenitor cells using adeno associated viral (AAV) vectors also promoted neuronal differentiation. Over-expressing cells demonstrated a significant increase in the neuron specific form of tubulin as well as increased expression of synaptotagmin. Genetic modification of neural progenitor cell with bHLH factors such as ND2 may be a viable strategy to enhance differentiation of these cells into replacement neurons for human disease.

The ETS family member TEL binds to nuclear receptors RAR and RXR and represses gene activation.

Retinoic acid receptor (RAR) signaling is important for regulating transcriptional activity of genes involved in growth, differentiation, metabolism and reproduction. Defects in RAR signaling have been implicated in cancer. TEL, a member of the ETS family of transcription factors, is a DNA-binding transcriptional repressor. Here, we identify TEL as a transcriptional repressor of RAR signaling by its direct binding to both RAR and its dimerisation partner, the retinoid x receptor (RXR) in a ligand-independent fashion. TEL is found in two isoforms, created by the use of an alternative startcodon at amino acid 43. Although both isoforms bind to RAR and RXR in vitro and in vivo, the shorter form of TEL represses RAR signaling much more efficiently. Binding studies revealed that TEL binds closely to the DNA binding domain of RAR and that both Helix Loop Helix (HLH) and DNA binding domains of TEL are mandatory for interaction. We have shown that repression by TEL does not involve recruitment of histone deacetylases and suggest that polycomb group proteins participate in the process.

Diversity and distribution of transcription factors: their partner domains play an important role in regulatory plasticity in bacteria.

The ability of bacteria to deal with diverse environmental changes depends on their repertoire of genes and their ability to regulate their expression. In this process, DNA-binding transcription factors (TFs) have a fundamental role because they affect gene expression positively and/or negatively depending on operator context and ligand-binding status. Here, we show an exhaustive analysis of winged helix-turn-helix domains (wHTHs), a class of DNA-binding TFs. These proteins were identified in high proportions and widely distributed in bacteria, representing around half of the total TFs identified so far. In addition, we evaluated the repertoire of wHTHs in terms of their partner domains (PaDos), identifying a similar trend, as with TFs, i.e. they are abundant and widely distributed in bacteria. Based on the PaDos, we defined three main groups of families: (i) monolithic, those families with little PaDo diversity, such as LysR; (ii) promiscuous, those families with a high PaDo diversity; and (iii) monodomain, with families of small sizes, such as MarR. These findings suggest that PaDos have a very important role in the diversification of regulatory responses in bacteria, probably contributing to their regulatory complexity. Thus, the TFs discriminate over longer regions on the DNA through their diverse DNA-binding domains. On the other hand, the PaDos would allow a great flexibility for transcriptional regulation due to their ability to sense diverse stimuli through a variety of ligand-binding compounds.