Dynamics of a dynamic interrelationship: Exploring whether bidirectional learning behaviors-achievement relations differ across student-teacher relationship profiles.

Children who engage more in classroom instruction tend to also have higher levels of academic achievement relative to their peers who engage less. Although research has clearly established an association between such learning behaviors and academic achievement, the directionality of this relationship, and the possibility of bidirectional relations, remain unclear. It is possible that this lack of clarity stems from the fact that interrelationships between achievement and learning behaviors may differ across student-teacher relationship contexts. We evaluated this possibility using a large nationally representative sample of kindergarten to third grade students (N = 2010) from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Kindergarten Cohort of 2011. Using latent profile moderation analyses, we identified three profiles of student-teacher relationships across kindergarten through third grade students: (a) Close (68%), (b) Conflictual (16%), and (c) Uninvolved (16%). Our follow-up models identified bidirectional relations that differed across these profiles, indicating more robust bidirectional learning behavior-achievement interrelationships in the Close profile and more unidirectional achievement to learning behavior relations in the Conflictual and Uninvolved profiles. These findings illustrate how differences in environmental contexts impact the relationship between students' learning behaviors and their achievement. Future studies should consider contextual influences when investigating children's academic growth processes and developing interventions.

Kids these days and kids those days: Investigating perceptions of children's social skills from 1988 to 2007.

Behavior rating scales are frequently used assessment tools designed to measure social skills. Use of norm-referenced assessments such as behavior rating scales requires examiners and test publishers to consider when norms become obsolete and norm-referenced scores can no longer be validly interpreted. A fundamental factor influencing norm obsolescence regards changes in baseline levels of targeted traits within the population. Yet, limited research exists regarding how social skills may change at a population level over time as measured by established assessment tools. Thus, the present study investigates population trends in social skills of K-12 children as rated by parents, teachers, and students by concordantly linking the Social Skills Rating System (SSRS; nparent = 833, nteacher = 1215, nstudent = 4105) and the Social Skills Improvement System-Rating Scales (SSIS-RS; nparent = 2400, nteacher = 750, nstudent = 800) using validity samples collected during the development of the SSIS-RS (nparent = 240, nteacher = 221, nstudent = 224). Analyses evaluated differences between ratings on the standardization data from 1988 and 2007 by informant, sex, grade level, and sex by grade level. After applying linear linking techniques, we conducted a series of statistical comparisons that revealed a general upward trend of ratings for the 2007 sample compared to the 1988 sample, with important differences across sex, grade level, and informant. We conclude with a discussion of the implications of these findings for consideration and assessment of children's social skills.

Evaluating the factor structure and measurement invariance of the Academic Competence Evaluation Scales-Short Form.

The Academic Competence Evaluation Scales-Short Form (ACES-SF) is a brief measure of students' academic skills and academic enablers that is completed by K-12 teachers for screening and intervention planning purposes. This study examined the factor structure and measurement invariance of the ACES-SF using multigroup confirmatory factor analysis to support cross-group comparisons of students' academic competence across grade level, gender, and race/ethnicity. The sample included 512 certified K-8 teachers from across the United States who provided demographic information and ACES-SF ratings for 1,024 students (50% female). Results indicated good fit of a seven-factor structure and full scalar invariance across gender, grade level, and race/ethnicity. Implications and future directions are discussed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Using many-facet rasch measurement and generalizability theory to explore rater effects for direct behavior rating-multi-item scales.

Although originally conceived of as a marriage of direct behavioral observation and indirect behavior rating scales, recent research has indicated that Direct Behavior Ratings (DBRs) are affected by rater idiosyncrasies (rater effects) similar to other indirect forms of behavioral assessment. Most of this research has been conducted using generalizability theory (GT), yet another approach, many-facet Rasch measurement (MFRM), has recently been utilized to illuminate the previously opaque nature of these rater idiosyncrasies. The purpose of this study was to utilize both approaches (GT and MFRM) to consider rater effects with 126 second- through fifth-grade students who were rated on two DBR-Multi-Item Scales by four raters (22 of these ratings were fully crossed). Results indicated the presence of rater effects and revealed nuances about their nature, including showing differences across construct domains, identifying items that are potentially more susceptible to rater effects than others, and isolating specific raters who appear to have been more susceptible to rater effects than other raters. These findings further indicate the indirect nature of DBRs and offer potential avenues for addressing and ameliorating rater effects in research and practice. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Multi-informant validity evidence for the SSIS SEL Brief Scales across six European countries.

The SSIS SEL Brief Scales (SSIS SELb) are multi-informant (teacher, parent, and student) measures that were developed to efficiently assess the SEL competencies of school-age youth in the United States. Recently, the SSIS SELb was translated into multiple languages for use in a multi-site study across six European countries (Croatia, Greece, Italy, Latvia, Portugal, and Romania). The purpose of the current study was to examine concurrent and predictive evidence for the SEL Composite scores from the translated versions of the SSIS SELb Scales. Results indicated that SSIS SELb Composite scores demonstrated expected positive concurrent and predictive relationships with scores from the Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC) and negative relationships with scores from the problem behavior scales of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ). Although there were a few exceptions, these patterns generally were consistent across informants (parents, teachers, and students) and samples providing initial validity evidence for the Composite score from the translated versions of the SSIS SELb Scales. Limitations and future research directions are discussed.

Bidirectional associations between biased language exposure and school-based relationships across gender.

Students often hear their peers use biased language regarding race, religion, sexual orientation, or disability status in the school setting. Prior research has indicated that biased language is related to school climate, and specifically to school-based relationships between peers and between students and their teachers. This study investigated the longitudinal associations among student-student relationships, teacher-student relationships, and being the target of or hearing biased language in middle school students. Students (N = 501; 46.5% White, 21.8% Hispanic, 13% African American, and 15% Multi-Racial; 48.7% female) reported on how much they were targeted or heard biased language related to race/religion, sexual orientation, and disability status. Students also reported on their relationships with their peers and teachers. Using a cross-lagged panel model with the overall sample, a negative unidirectional association from being the target of or hearing biased language and student-student relationships and teacher-student relationships was identified. Separate models for boys and girls identified unique patterns. For boys, biased-language exposure predicted more negative student-student relationships and teacher-student relationships, whereas for girls, biased-language exposure was not associated with school-based relationships. Implications include addressing language use and building positive student-student and teacher-student relationships.

Academic enablers as dynamic moderators: Exploring academic enablers and achievement across elementary school.

The purpose of the current study was to advance the understanding of the cross-grade dynamics of academic enablers in three ways: (a) to compare overall levels of academic enablers across children's elementary school years, (b) to determine if the relationship between academic enablers and academic achievement remained consistent across children's elementary school years, and (c) to determine if the interrelationships between academic enablers remained consistent across elementary school. We examined cross-grade dynamics using a sample of elementary-aged children (N = 536) and structural equation modeling methodology to compare primary (K-3rd grade) and intermediate (4th-5th grade) students. After establishing measurement invariance, we tested whether (a) academic enabler means and variances were equivalent for younger and older elementary students, (b) the relationships between academic enablers and academic achievement were equivalent for younger and older elementary students, and (c) the interrelations between academic enablers were equivalent for younger versus older students. The findings revealed few differences in mean levels of academic enablers but several differences in the relationships between academic enablers and academic achievement, as well as academic enabler interrelations across grade groups. Implications of these findings for research and practice are discussed.

Are ratings in the eye of the beholder? A non-technical primer on many facet Rasch measurement to evaluate rater effects on teacher behavior rating scales.

Rater-mediated assessments, such as teacher behavior rating scales, measure student behavior indirectly through the lens of a rater. As a result, scores from rater-mediated assessments can be influenced by rater effects- individual differences in rater perspectives, attitudes, beliefs, and interpretation of rating scale items. Rater effects are a fundamental aspect of all rater-mediated assessments. However, traditional approaches to evaluate rater effects (i.e., classical test theory, generalizability theory, and multilevel modeling) merely estimate how much score variability is due to the rater. These approaches, while informative, do not offer a solution to the problem. In contrast, Many-facet Rasch measurement (MFRM) approaches estimate and control for rater effects in rater-mediated assessments so that scores are adjusted to account for rater variability. Thus, MFRM offers unique insights into individual- and group-level rater effects that can be used to inform a solution. The resultant purpose of this paper is to introduce MFRM, discuss its advantages for evaluating rater effects in rater-mediated assessments, and demonstrate its use through an applied example.

Examining Rater Effects on the Classroom Assessment Scoring System.

The Classroom Assessment Scoring System (CLASS; Pianta et al., 2008) is a popular measure of teacher-child interactions. Despite its prominence, CLASS scores have fairly weak relations with various child outcomes (e.g., Zaslow et al., 2010). One potential reason for these findings could be systematic differences in observer severity. As such, the purpose of this study was to explore the scope and impact of rater effects on CLASS scores with a sample of 77 teachers who were rated by 13 observers. Results indicated significant rater effects across all three CLASS domains. Adjusting for these effects, however, did not improve relations between CLASS scores and child outcomes. Implications for the CLASS and related assessments are discussed.

The SSIS SEL Brief Scales-Student Form: Initial development and validation.

The SSIS SEL Brief Scales-Student Form (SSIS SELb-S) was developed to create an efficient assessment of students' social and emotional learning (SEL). Using item response theory with ratings from 800 students in Grades 3-12 from the standardization sample, 20 items were selected from the full-length SSIS SEL Rating Form - Student to maximize score information and rating efficiency. After identifying items for the SSIS SELb-S, we conducted several reliability and validity analyses. These analyses provided initial support for the use of the SSIS SELb-S for low-stakes decision making contexts. As such, the SSIS SELb-S holds promise for incorporating the perspectives of students ages 8-18 into assessments of their SEL competencies. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Process and context: Longitudinal effects of the interactions between parental involvement, parental warmth, and SES on academic achievement.

Parents' involvement in their children's education and parental warmth have been linked to many positive child outcomes. In addition to these positive associations, contemporary developmental theory stresses the interaction between different parenting variables and the interaction between parenting and broad contextual factors such as family socioeconomic status (SES). Thus, the purpose of this study was to examine main and interaction effects of parent home-based involvement and parental warmth on achievement outcomes. Additionally, we evaluated whether these variables also interacted with SES to predict students' achievement growth. Using the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study - Kindergarten Cohort of 2010-11 (N = 2352), growth of academic outcomes was modeled from kindergarten to the fourth grade. We then used latent variable interaction (Maslowsky, Jager, & Hemken, 2015) procedures to examine interaction effects of our primary study variables. Few significant effects were noted for children's reading and mathematics scores, but more substantial main (home-based involvement) and interaction (parental warmth and SES) effects emerged for science achievement. At high SES levels, warmth negatively predicted growth in science, whereas at lower SES levels, warmth positively predicted growth. Findings are discussed in relation to importance of parent involvement, differential effects across SES contexts, and curricular emphasis in contemporary schools.

Parent involvement and children's externalizing behavior: Exploring longitudinal bidirectional effects across gender.

The current study longitudinally examined potential bidirectional associations between parents' home-based involvement, school-based involvement, and home-school communication and their children's externalizing behavior across child gender. Using the Early Childhood-Longitudinal Study - Kindergarten Cohort of 1998-99, three sets of analyses were conducted examining home involvement (n = 16,555), school involvement (n = 12,011), and home-school communication (n = 16,555). Cross-lagged panel analyses indicated a small effect of school-based involvement in kindergarten on externalizing behavior in the first grade but no other significant effects with no differences in patterns across gender. The utilized methodology also enabled an examination of longitudinal trends in different types of parent involvement across gender, which revealed important developmental differences in average parent involvement. Ultimately, the results of this study did not indicate robust unidirectional or bidirectional effects between parent involvement and student externalizing behavior. These findings are an important step forward in understanding the family variables influencing student behavior at school.

Maximizing measurement efficiency of behavior rating scales using Item Response Theory: An example with the Social Skills Improvement System - Teacher Rating Scale.

Measurement efficiency is an important consideration when developing behavior rating scales for use in research and practice. Although most published scales have been developed within a Classical Test Theory (CTT) framework, Item Response Theory (IRT) offers several advantages for developing scales that maximize measurement efficiency. The current study provides an example of using IRT to maximize rating scale efficiency with the Social Skills Improvement System - Teacher Rating Scale (SSIS - TRS), a measure of student social skills frequently used in practice and research. Based on IRT analyses, 27 items from the Social Skills subscales and 14 items from the Problem Behavior subscales of the SSIS - TRS were identified as maximally efficient. In addition to maintaining similar content coverage to the published version, these sets of maximally efficient items demonstrated similar psychometric properties to the published SSIS - TRS.

Divorce, approaches to learning, and children's academic achievement: a longitudinal analysis of mediated and moderated effects.

Data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study--Kindergarten Cohort (ECLS-K) were used to test the hypothesis that approaches to learning (ATL) mediates the link between parental divorce and academic achievement. Fixed effects regression was utilized to test for mediation, and subsequent moderation analyses examining gender and age at time of divorce also were conducted. Results indicated that divorce was associated with less growth in test scores and that ATL mediated 18% and 12% of this association in reading and mathematics respectively. Parental divorce also was associated with larger negative effects for children who experienced divorce at an older age as well as for girls' mathematics test scores. These findings contribute to the understanding of the impact of parental divorce on children's academic achievement and underscore the importance of focusing on the variability of child outcomes following parental divorce.

Estimating the Effects of Parental Divorce and Death With Fixed Effects Models.

The authors used child fixed effects models to estimate the effects of parental divorce and death on a variety of outcomes using 2 large national data sets: (a) the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Cohort (kindergarten through the 5th grade) and (b) the National Educational Longitudinal Study (8th grade to the senior year of high school). In both data sets, divorce and death were associated with multiple negative outcomes among children. Although evidence for a causal effect of divorce on children was reasonably strong, effect sizes were small in magnitude. A second analysis revealed a substantial degree of variability in children's outcomes following parental divorce, with some children declining, others improving, and most not changing at all. The estimated effects of divorce appeared to be strongest among children with the highest propensity to experience parental divorce.