Role of Metacognitive Confidence Judgments in Curiosity: Different Effects of Confidence on Curiosity Across Epistemic and Perceptual Domains.

Previous research suggests that curiosity is sometimes induced by novel information one has no relevant knowledge about, but it is sometimes induced by new information about something that one is familiar with and has prior knowledge about. However, the conditions under which novelty or familiarity triggers curiosity remain unclear. Using metacognitive confidence judgments as a proxy to quantify the amount of knowledge, this study evaluates the relationship between the amount of relevant knowledge and curiosity. We reviewed previous studies on the relationship between subjective curiosity and confidence and reanalyzed existing large-sample data. The findings indicate that the relationship between curiosity and confidence differs depending on the nature of the stimuli: epistemic versus perceptual. Regarding perceptual stimuli, curiosity is stronger when individuals have lower confidence levels. By contrast, for epistemic stimuli, curiosity is stronger when individuals have higher confidence levels. These results suggest that curiosity triggered by perceptual stimuli is based on perceived novelty, whereas that triggered by epistemic stimuli is based on familiarity with prior knowledge.

Curiosity and the dynamics of optimal exploration.

What drives our curiosity remains an elusive and hotly debated issue, with multiple hypotheses proposed but a cohesive account yet to be established. This review discusses traditional and emergent theories that frame curiosity as a desire to know and a drive to learn, respectively. We adopt a model-based approach that maps the temporal dynamics of various factors underlying curiosity-based exploration, such as uncertainty, information gain, and learning progress. In so doing, we identify the limitations of past theories and posit an integrated account that harnesses their strengths in describing curiosity as a tool for optimal environmental exploration. In our unified account, curiosity serves as a 'common currency' for exploration, which must be balanced with other drives such as safety and hunger to achieve efficient action.

Learning progress mediates the link between cognitive effort and task engagement.

While a substantial body of work has shown that cognitive effort is aversive and costly, a separate line of research on intrinsic motivation suggests that people spontaneously seek challenging tasks. According to one prominent account of intrinsic motivation, the learning progress motivation hypothesis, the preference for difficult tasks reflects the dynamic range that these tasks yield for changes in task performance (Kaplan & Oudeyer, 2007). Here we test this hypothesis, by asking whether greater engagement with intermediately difficult tasks, indexed by subjective ratings and objective pupil measurements, is a function of trial-wise changes in performance. In a novel paradigm, we determined each individual's capacity for task performance and used difficulty levels that are low, intermediately challenging or high for that individual. We demonstrated that challenging tasks resulted in greater liking and engagement scores compared with easy tasks. Pupil size tracked objective task difficulty, where challenging tasks were associated with greater pupil responses than easy tasks. Most importantly, pupil responses were predicted by trial-to-trial changes in average accuracy as well as learning progress (derivative of average accuracy), while greater pupil responses also predicted greater subjective engagement scores. Together, these results substantiate the learning progress motivation hypothesis stating that the link between task engagement and cognitive effort is mediated the dynamic range for changes in task performance.

Effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on reading performance of second grade children in Germany.

In education, among the most anticipated consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic are that student performance will stagnate or decline and that existing inequities will increase. Although some studies suggest a decline in student performance and widening learning gaps, the picture is less clear than expected. In this study, we add to the existing literature on the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on student achievement. Specifically, we provide an analysis of the short- and mid-term effects of the pandemic on second grade reading performance in Germany using longitudinal assessments from over 19,500 students with eight measurement points in each school year. Interestingly, the effects of the pandemic established over time. Students in the first pandemic cohort even outperformed students from the pre-pandemic cohorts and showed a tendency towards decreased variances during the first lockdown. The second pandemic cohort showed no systematic mean differences, but generally had larger interindividual differences as compared to the pre-pandemic cohorts. While the gender achievement gap seemed unaffected by the pandemic, the gap between students with and without a migration background widened over time-though even before the pandemic. These results underline the importance of considering effects of the pandemic across cohorts, large samples, and fine-grained assessments. We discuss our findings considering the context-specific educational challenges and in terms of practical implications for teachers' professional development.

Students' learning growth in mental addition and subtraction: Results from a learning progress monitoring approach.

The purpose of this study was to measure and describe students' learning development in mental computation of mixed addition and subtraction tasks up to 100. We used a learning progress monitoring (LPM) approach with multiple repeated measurements to examine the learning curves of second-and third-grade primary school students in mental computation over a period of 17 biweekly measurement intervals in the school year 2020/2021. Moreover, we investigated how homogeneous students' learning curves were and how sociodemographic variables (gender, grade level, the assignment of special educational needs) affected students' learning growth. Therefore, 348 German students from six schools and 20 classes (10.9% students with special educational needs) worked on systematically, but randomly mixed addition and subtraction tasks at regular intervals with an online LPM tool. We collected learning progress data for 12 measurement intervals during the survey period that was impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic. Technical results show that the employed LPM tool for mental computation met the criteria of LPM research stages 1 and 2. Focusing on the learning curves, results from latent growth curve modeling showed significant differences in the intercept and in the slope based on the background variables. The results illustrate that one-size-fits-all instruction is not appropriate, thus highlighting the value of LPM or other means that allow individualized, adaptive teaching. The study provides a first quantitative overview over the learning curves for mental computation in second and third grade. Furthermore, it offers a validated tool for the empirical analysis of learning curves regarding mental computation and strong reference data against which individual learning growth can be compared to identify students with unfavorable learning curves and provide targeted support as part of an adaptive, evidence-based teaching approach. Implications for further research and school practice are discussed.

Contributions of expected learning progress and perceptual novelty to curiosity-driven exploration.

Exploration is curiosity-driven when it relies on the intrinsic motivation to know rather than on extrinsic rewards. Recent evidence shows that artificial agents perform better on a variety of tasks when their learning is curiosity-driven, and humans often engage in curiosity-driven learning when sampling information from the environment. However, which mechanisms underlie curiosity is still unclear. Here, we let participants freely explore different unknown environments that contained learnable sequences of events with varying degrees of noise and volatility. A hierarchical reinforcement learning model captured how participants were learning in these different kinds of unknown environments, and it also tracked the errors they expected to make and the learning opportunities they were planning to seek. With this computational approach, we show that participants' exploratory behavior is guided by learning progress and perceptual novelty. Moreover, we demonstrate an overall tendency of participants to avoid extreme forms of uncertainty. These findings elucidate the cognitive mechanisms that underlie curiosity-driven exploration of unknown environments. Implications of this novel way of quantifying curiosity within a reinforcement learning framework are discussed.

Continuous norming in learning progress monitoring-An example for a test in spelling from grade 2-4.

One of the main goals of the teacher and the school system as a whole is to close learning gaps and support children with difficulties in learning. The identification of those children as well as the monitoring of their progress in learning is crucial for this task. The derivation of comparative standards that can be applied well in practice is a relevant quality criterion in this context. Continuous normalization is particularly useful for progress monitoring tests that can be conducted at different points in time. Areas that were not available in the normalization sample are extrapolated, closing gaps in applicability due to discontinuity. In Germany, teachers participated in a state-funded research project to formatively measure their children's spelling performance in primary school. Data (N = 3000) from grade two to four were scaled, linked and translated into comparative values that can be used in classrooms independently from specific times. The tests meet the requirements of item response models and can be transferred well to continuous norms. However, we recommend using the 10th or 20th percentile as cut-off points for educational measures, as the 5th percentile is not discriminating enough.

Effects of Data-Based Decision-Making on Low-Performing Readers in General Education Classrooms: Cumulative Evidence From Six Intervention Studies.

In most general education classrooms in Germany, students with and without special educational needs are taught together. To support teachers in adapting instruction to these heterogeneous classrooms, we have developed learning progress assessment (LPA) and reading instructional materials, the Reading Sportsman (RS), in line with the theoretical framework of data-based decision-making, which has led to beneficial effects in several studies. However, data from these studies have not been analyzed to examine effects for low-performing readers. Data within and across six quasi-experimental studies conducted by our team in Grades 2 to 4 were reanalyzed to examine the effects of LPA on students whose reading fluency scores were at or below the 25th percentile (n = 1,346 students from 264 classes). In each study, students had been assigned to a control group (with business-as-usual instruction), an LPA group only, or an LPA-RS group (i.e., with teachers provided with LPA and the RS). Separate multilevel regression results were integrated by means of meta-analytical methods to investigate the consistency of results. Overall, findings from the single studies indicated no positive effects of LPA with or without the RS compared with the control group. The integrated analyses showed small positive effect trends on reading fluency and intrinsic reading motivation.

Educational gains of in-person vs. distance learning in primary and secondary schools: A natural experiment during the COVID-19 pandemic school closures in Switzerland.

Using data from a computer-based formative feedback system, we compare learning gains in the 8 weeks of school closures related to the COVID-19 pandemic in Switzerland with learning gains in the 8 weeks before these school closures. The school performance in mathematics and language of N = 28,685 pupils is modelled in second-order piecewise latent growth models with strict measurement invariance for the two periods under investigation. While secondary school pupils remain largely unaffected by the school closures in terms of learning gains, for primary school pupils learning slows down and at the same time interindividual variance in learning gains increases. Distance learning arrangements seem an effective means to substitute for in-person learning, at least in an emergency situation, but not all pupils benefit to the same degree.

Subjective safety and self-confidence in prehospital trauma care and learning progress after trauma-courses: part of the prospective longitudinal mixed-methods EPPTC-trial.

BACKGROUND: Prehospital trauma care is stressful and requires multi-professional teamwork. A decrease in the number of accident victims ultimately affects the routine and skills and underlines the importance of effective training. Standardized courses, like PHTLS, are established for health care professionals to improve the prehospital care of trauma patients. The aim of the study was to investigate the subjective safety in prehospital trauma care and learning progress by paramedics in a longitudinal analysis. METHODS: This was a prospective intervention trial and part of the mixed-method longitudinal EPPTC-trial, evaluating subjective and objective changes among participants and real patient care as a result of PHTLS courses. Participants were evaluated with pre/post questionnaires as well as one year after the course. RESULTS: We included 236 datasets. In the pre/post comparison, an increased performance could be observed in nearly all cases. The result shows that the expectations of the participants of the course were fully met even after one year (p = 0.002). The subjective safety in trauma care is significantly better even one year after the course (p < 0.001). Regression analysis showed that (ABCDE)-structure is decisive (p = 0.036) as well as safety in rare and common skills (both p < 0.001). Most skills are also rated better after one year. Knowledge and specific safety are assessed as worse after one year. CONCLUSION: The courses meet the expectations of the participants and increase the subjective safety in the prehospital care of trauma patients. ABCDE-structure and safety in skills are crucial. In the short term, both safety in skills and knowledge can be increased, but the courses do not have the power to maintain knowledge and specific subjective safety issues over a year. TRIAL REGISTRATION: German Clinical Trials Register, ID DRKS00004713 , registered 14. February 2014.

From novice to expert: analyzing the learning curve for MRI-transrectal ultrasonography fusion-guided transrectal prostate biopsy.

PURPOSE: To investigate the learning curve of a novice in MRI/TRUS software fusion biopsy and to compare his results with the expert standard at our institution. METHODS: Overall 126 MRI/TRUS fusion-guided transrectal biopsies were performed using an electromagnetic tracking ultrasonography platform. The learning progress of the novice was evaluated comparing his initial 42 procedures (group A) with his following 42 (group B). The institution's expert standard (group C), which was compared to the novice's groups, was defined by the expert's experience of 42 MRI/TRUS fusion biopsies. Primary learning curve parameters were targeted biopsy detection quotient and biopsy time. RESULTS: Overall detection of prostate cancer was 64% (27/42), 62% (26/42) and 62% (26/42) in groups A, B and C, respectively. The median target biopsy detection quotient significantly increased (p = 0.04) in group B (0.75, interquartile range (IQR) 0.25-1.0) compared to group A. (0.33, IQR 0.2-0.5). Group C revealed a median detection quotient of 0.5 (IQR 0.25-0.76) that did not differ significantly from the novice's groups (p = 0.2). Median biopsy time was significantly higher in group A (45 min, IQR 33-50 min) compared to groups B (25 min, IQR 23-29 min) and C (24 min, IQR 16-46 min) (p < 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: The present study revealed the individual learning curve of a novice in MRI/TRUS fusion biopsy and demonstrated significant learning progress regarding targeted biopsy detection quotient and biopsy time.

Características no cognitivas, habitus y progreso del aprendizaje de Matemática en la Educación General Básica (EGB) de la Provincia de Buenos Aires (República Argentina) / Non cognitive characteristics, habitus, and progress learning in Mathematic of the Basic General Education (EGB) in Buenos Aires (República Argentina)

En el estudio que se informa se investigaron las relaciones entre progreso de aprendizaje (valor agregado), motivación y autoconcepto académico del alumno en Matemática, en el marco de los efectos de las características socioeconómicas y académicas del alumno y de su escuela. Para la medición del valor agregado se utilizaron los resultados de dos pruebas estandarizadas de Matemática aplicadas a una cohorte de alumnos de la Provincia de Buenos Aires (República Argentina) en dos momentos diferentes (séptimo y noveno años de Educación General Básica - EGB). Las mediciones de motivación y de autoconcepto se basaron en respuestas a ítemes binarios de actitudes con respecto a Matemática y fueron definidas utilizando el análisis de la componente principal, a partir de la matriz de correlación tetracórica (método heurístico). Para el análisis de las correlaciones se utilizó la técnica estadística de modelos multinivel. El presente estudio relaciona los resultados empíricos con la teoría del habitus de Bourdieu. Inicialmente, el autoconcepto resulta significativa y positivamente asociado con el puntaje en la prueba y con el progreso de aprendizaje posterior. Este efecto continúa siendo significativo aun cuando se controlan los efectos del nivel socioeconómico y del género del alumno. Sin embargo, su capacidad explicativa es muy tenue desde el punto de vista práctico. Si bien este resultado confirmaría la hipótesis central de la teoría de la reproducción, indica un sendero a través del cual podrían producirse transformaciones. Uno de los desafíos del sistema educativo es promover el habitus escolar cultivado (autoconcepto) más allá de las determinaciones sociales, culturales y económicas.

The project examines the relationship between achievement, motivation and academic self-concept connected to Mathematic, related to the effect of academic and socioeconomic characteristics of both student and school. The study analyzes the results of two standardized Mathematic tests applied to students in General Basic Education of the Province of Buenos Aires (República Argentina) at two different stages (7th and 9th years), adopting the added value approach to learning progress. The structure of the data and the purpose of measuring the contextual effect of each school or group of students require adopting a multi-level strategy for statistical analysis. From a theoretical point of view, this study is an empirical proof of the hypothesis on habitus-determination (Bourdieu, 1977, 1988, 1989) in relation to both achievement and learning progress in Mathematic. The main components of the student's habitus, which are analyzed here, are self-concept and academic motivation. One relevant result of this study is that students' academic self-concept is significantly and positively associated to differences in learning achievement among students and schools. The higher the self-concept, the higher the achievement in Mathematic. Inter-school variations reflect the grade of institutional segmentation or school habitus. As to attitudes towards Mathematics at the initial stage (7th year) it was possible to explain 65.4% and 24.3% of the variation intra-school and inter-school, respectively, in the final academic achievement or learning progress at the final stage (9th year). Although the effect of self-concept overlaps with that of socioeconomic level and gender, its incidence is important. The stronger that attitude is, the stronger the progress of the student's later learning. The rate of students' progress increases with a more favourable social origin or male gender. The contextual analysis also allowed contrasting some hypothesis of this field of study. The initial achievement average (7th year) of students impacts positively on their subsequent progress average: the higher their initial level of achievement, the faster their later progress. This inference, however, did not obtain when the socioeconomic context of the school was included in the analysis. These results confirm the central hypotheses of reproduction theory. Although statistically significant, the characteristic effect of individual self-concept upon academic achievement and learning progress is very weak when students' social origin is taken into account. The school doesn't seem to promote the increase of individual deviations from a certain state of probabilities that are objectively granted by society to the student. The school aggregation of individual habitus merely overlaps and accompanies the explanation provided by the socioeconomic composition of the school. Differences in internal institutional processes of schools influenced by various dimensions, such as curricular goals, an organizational style of management, the culture and capabilities of educators and administrators, if they exist, cannot account for the differences and inequalities in the learning progress of students. Results illustrate the rationality of the educational system in secondary basic education. At the same time, they suggest paths whereby transformations could take place. Aspects of the cultivated habitus, affective or non-cognitive dimensions as academic self-concept, are relevant to understand the level of achievement and learning progress. The challenge for the system of education is to promote them beyond social, cultural and economic factors.