A case of crystalglobulin-induced nephropathy wherein M protein was identified by mass spectrometry and immunoglobulin G subclass staining.

Crystalglobulin-induced nephropathy is a rare disease that causes the deposition of crystallized monoclonal immunoglobulins into the glomerular capillary and arteriole spaces. Here, we report the case of a patient who presented with skin ulcers, urinary protein, and renal dysfunction. The patient underwent renal and skin biopsies, and the biopsy tissue samples were subjected to mass spectrometry. The patient was diagnosed with crystalglobulin-induced nephropathy. A literature review suggested that pathological examinations using electron microscopy, mass spectrometry, and immunofluorescent staining of paraffin-embedded biopsy samples treated with pronase may be useful for the diagnosis of this condition.

Apolipoprotein E-associated Lipoprotein Glomerulo-tubulopathy.

A 32-year-old man was admitted for the evaluation of proteinuria (5.69 g/day). A light microscopic examination showed markedly dilated glomerular capillary loops with vacuolated areas in many glomeruli, and vacuolated areas were seen on peritubular capillaries in the tubulointerstitium. When electron microscopy specimens prepared by pre-fixation with glutaraldehyde and post-fixation with osmium tetroxide were used for oil red staining, the deposition was confirmed on the affected areas. A genetic analysis of apoE showed that the lipoprotein glomerulopathy was due to apoE-Sendai (Arg145Pro, p.R163P) heterozygosity, which was found in not only the patient but also his mother and twin brother.

Proteinuria and Renal Dysfunction Due to Extremely Low Birth Weight in a Patient with Silver-Russell Syndrome.

A 36-year-old woman diagnosed with Silver-Russell syndrome during childhood presented to our department after a primary care physician suspected renal dysfunction. At birth, she had an extremely low weight (1210 g), and in childhood, she was diagnosed with Silver-Russell syndrome. At the age of 14 she was found to have proteinuria; however, the condition was never further examined. One month prior to her presentation to our department, the following were noted: 3+ urinary protein, 3.9 urinary protein/creatinine ratio, and 48 mL/min/1.73 m2 estimated glomerular filtration rate. Abdominal computed tomography revealed small kidneys difficult to visualize using ultrasound. Therefore, an open renal biopsy was performed. The renal biopsy revealed no significant findings in the glomerulus except glomerular hypertrophy, and the glomerular density in the cortical area was low (0.6/mm2). The patient was diagnosed with oligomeganephronia. Proteinuria and renal dysfunction were likely due to glomerular hyperfiltration resulting from a low nephron count caused by low birth weight. Silver-Russell syndrome is characterized by intrauterine growth retardation and additional developmental disorders after birth. Here, we detected oligomeganephronia following kidney biopsy in a patient with Silver-Russell syndrome. We suspect that a reduced number of nephrons due to low birth weight caused proteinuria and renal dysfunction.

Precise diagnosis and typing of early-stage renal immunoglobulin-derived amyloidosis by label-free quantification of parallel reaction monitoring-based targeted proteomics.

BACKGROUND: Early diagnosis and typing are crucial for improving the prognosis of patients with renal amyloidosis. Currently, Untargeted proteomics based precise diagnosis and typing of amyloid deposits are crucial for guiding patient management. Although untargeted proteomics achieve ultra-high-throughput by selecting the most abundant eluting cationic peptide precursors in series for tandem MS events, it lacks in sensitivity and reproducibility, which may not be suitable for early-stage renal amyloidosis with minor damages. Here, we aimed to develop parallel reaction monitoring (PRM)-based targeted proteomics to achieve high sensitivity and specificity by determining absolute abundances and codetecting all transitions of highly repeatable peptides of preselected amyloid signature and typing proteins in identifying early-stage renal immunoglobulin-derived amyloidosis. METHODS AND RESULTS: In 10 discovery cohort cases, Congo red-stained FFPE slices were micro-dissected and analyzed by data-dependent acquisition-based untargeted proteomics for preselection of typing specific proteins and peptides. Further, a list of proteolytic peptides from amyloidogenic proteins and internal standard proteins were quantified by PRM-based targeted proteomics to validate performance for diagnosis and typing in 26 validation cohort cases. The diagnosis and typing effectiveness of PRM-based targeted proteomics in 10 early-stage renal amyloid cases was assessed via a comparison with untargeted proteomics. A peptide panel of amyloid signature proteins, immunoglobulin light chain and heave chain in PRM-based targeted proteomics showed significantly distinguishing ability and amyloid typing performance in patients. The diagnostic algorithm of targeted proteomics with a low amount of amyloid deposits in early-stage renal immunoglobulin-derived amyloidosis showed better performance than untargeted proteomics in amyloidosis typing. CONCLUSIONS: This study demonstrates that the utility of these prioritized peptides in PRM-based targeted proteomics ensure high sensitivity and reliability for identifying early-stage renal amyloidosis. Owing to the development and clinical application of this method, rapid acceleration of the early diagnosis, and typing of renal amyloidosis is expected.

Gemcitabine alters sialic acid binding of the glycocalyx and induces inflammatory cytokine production in cultured endothelial cells.

Gemcitabine (GEM) is an anticancer drug inhibiting DNA synthesis. Glomerular thrombotic microangiopathy (TMA) has been reported as an adverse effect. However, the precise mechanism of GEM-induced endothelial injury remains unknown. Cultured human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) in the confluent phase were exposed to GEM (5-100 µM) for 48 h and evaluated cell viability and morphology, lectin binding concerning sialic acid of endothelial glycocalyx (GCX), and immunofluorescent staining of platelet-endothelial cell adhesion molecule (PECAM) and vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2 (VEGFR2). The mRNA expression of α2,6-sialyltransferase (ST6Gal1), sialidase (neuraminidase-1: NEU-1), and interleukin (IL)-1ß and IL-6 was also evaluated. GEM exposure at 5 µM induced cellular shrinkage and intercellular dissociation, accompanied by slight attenuation of PECAM and VEGFR2 immunostaining, although cell viability was still preserved. At this concentration, lectin binding showed a reduction of terminal sialic acids in endothelial GCX, probably associated with reduced ST6Gal1 mRNA expression. IL-1ß and IL-6 mRNA expression was significantly increased after GEM exposure. GEM reduced terminal sialic acids in endothelial GCX through mRNA suppression of ST6Gal1 and induced inflammatory cytokine production in HUVECs. This phenomenon could be associated with the mechanism of GEM-induced TMA.

Recent advances in electron microscopy for the diagnosis and research of glomerular diseases.

Recent technical advances in the detection of backscattered electrons during scanning electron microscopy (SEM) have improved resolution and have provided several new technologies for research and clinical practice in kidney disease. The advances include three-dimensional (3D) electron microscopy (3D-EM), correlative light and electron microscopy (CLEM), low-vacuum SEM (LVSEM), and scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM). 3D-EM analysis used to be laborious, but recently three different technologies, serial block-face SEM, focused ion beam SEM, and array tomography, have made 3D-EM easier by automating sectioning and the subsequent image acquisition in an SEM. CLEM is a method to correlate light microscopic images, especially immunofluorescent and electron microscopy images, providing detailed ultrastructure of the area of interest where the immunofluorescent marker is located. LVSEM enables the use of SEM on materials with poor electron conductivity. For example, LVSEM makes it possible for high resolution, 3D observation of paraffin sections. Finally, STEM is a method to observe ultrathin sections with improved resolution by using the focused electron beam scanning used in SEM and not the broad electron beam used in transmission electron microscopy. These technical advances in electron microscopy are promising to provide plenty of novel insights for understanding the pathogenesis and diagnosis of various glomerular diseases.

Juvenile Membranous Nephropathy Developed after Human Papillomavirus (HPV) Vaccination.

A 16-year-old girl with no history of renal disease had a fever of 38 °C after her second HPV vaccination and was identified as positive for proteinuria. As she maintained urinary protein of 3.10 g/gCr and 5-9 urinary red blood cells/HPF, a renal biopsy was performed and small spikes on PAM staining with the granular deposition of IgG1++ and IgG3+ on the glomerular capillary wall were discovered by immunofluorescence, although PLA2R immunostaining was negative. Analysis by electron microscope showed electron density deposition in the form of fine particles under the epithelium. The diagnosis was secondary membranous nephropathy stage II. Immunostaining with the anti-p16 INK4a antibody was positive for glomerular cells, and Western blot analysis of urinary protein showed a positive band for p16 INK4a. However, laser-microdissection mass spectrometry analysis of a paraffin section of glomeruli failed to detect HPV proteins. It is possible that the patient was already infected with HPV and administration of the HPV vaccine may have caused secondary membranous nephropathy.

Crohn's disease may promote inflammation in IgA nephropathy: a case-control study of patients undergoing kidney biopsy.

Intestinal immunity has been closely associated with the pathogenesis and progression of renal diseases, a relationship known as the "gut-kidney axis." To determine the association between immunoglobulin A nephropathy (IgAN) and Crohn's disease (CD), a clinico-pathological study was performed on patients who had IgAN with CD (CD-IgAN) and without CD (NOS-IgAN). We enrolled 29 patients diagnosed with IgAN via renal biopsy at the Tokyo Yamate Medical Center from 2009 to 2017. The patients were divided into CD-IgAN (n = 18) and NOS-IgAN (n = 11) and evaluated for clinical and pathological findings. IgA subclasses and galactose-deficient IgA1 (Gd-IgA1) were examined via immunohistochemistry using formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded sections from renal biopsy. Our results showed no significant difference in the extent of mesangial IgA subclasses or Gd-IgA1 deposition according to the presence or absence of CD. Pathologically, however, those with CD-IgAN had remarkably higher percentage of global glomerulosclerosis and extent of interstitial fibrosis and tubular atrophy (IF/TA) compared to those with NOS-IgAN. Moreover, the extent of macrophage infiltration in the glomerulus and interstitium was significantly higher in CD-IgAN than in NOS-IgAN. Clinically, the CD-IgAN group had significantly worse responsiveness to steroid treatment compared to the NOS-IgAN group. In conclusion, the similar immunological characteristics of deposited IgA molecules in the glomeruli between the CD-IgAN and NOS-IgAN groups might suggest their etiological similarity. However, a renal pathology showing advanced glomerular and tubulointerstitial sclerosis accompanying increased macrophage infiltration and highly resistant clinical features in patients with CD-IgAN suggests that some pathophysiological factors in CD, including abnormal intestinal immunity, may promote and activate the inflammatory process in IgAN via undetermined mechanisms.

AL-Kappa Primary Amyloidosis with Apolipoprotein A-IV Deposition.

A 70-year-old woman with complaints of edema, general malaise, and hypotension was diagnosed with renal amyloidosis, and laser microdissection mass spectrometry revealed her amyloidosis to predominantly comprise the apolipoprotein A-IV type. The M-protein turned from negative to positive during the course, and a bone marrow biopsy showed smoldering myeloma. Treatment with bortezomib and dexamethasone failed to save her from heart failure six months after the onset. Western blotting of urine samples at the time of the renal biopsy showed that amyloid light-chain κ amyloidosis had been present since the onset. Unlike the myeloma, Congo red staining was positive in the plasma cells of the bone marrow.

Evaluation of ultrastructural alterations of glomerular basement membrane and podocytes in glomeruli by low-vacuum scanning electron microscopy.

BACKGROUND: Low-vacuum scanning electron microscopy (LV-SEM) is applied to diagnostic renal pathology. METHODS: To demonstrate the usefulness of LV-SEM and to clarify the optimal conditions of pathology samples, we investigated the alterations of glomerular basement membrane (GBM) and podocytes in control and experimental active Heymann nephritis (AHN) rats by LV-SEM. RESULTS: On week 15 following induction of AHN, spike formation on GBM with diffuse deposition of IgG and C3 developed. Using LV-SEM, diffuse crater-like protrusions were clearly noted three-dimensionally (3D) on surface of GBM in the same specimens of light microscopy (LM) and immunofluorescence (IF) studies only after removal coverslips or further adding periodic acid-silver methenamine (PAM) staining. These 3D ultrastructural findings of GBM surface could be detected in PAM-stained specimens by LV-SEM, although true GBM surface findings could not be obtained in acellular glomeruli, because some subepithelial deposits remained on surface of GBM. Adequate thickness was 1.5-5 µm for 10% formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded (FFPE) and 5-10 µm for the unfixed frozen sections. The foot processes and their effacement of podocytes could be observed by LV-SEM using 10%FFPE specimens with platinum blue (Pt-blue) staining or double staining of PAM and Pt-blue. These findings were obtained more large areas in 2.5% glutaraldehyde-fixed paraffin-embedded (2.5%GFPE) specimens. CONCLUSION: Our findings suggest that LV-SEM is a useful assessment tool for evaluating the alterations of GBM and podocytes in renal pathology using routine LM and IF specimens, as well as 2.5%GFPE specimens.

Three-dimensional electron microscopy for endothelial glycocalyx observation using Alcian blue with silver enhancement.

Glycocalyx (GCX) is a thin layer of negatively charged glycoproteins that covers the vascular endothelial surface and regulates various biological processes. Because of the delicate and fragile properties of this structure, it is difficult to detect GCX morphologically. We established a simple method for a three-dimensional visualization of endothelial GCX using low-vacuum scanning electron microscopy (LVSEM) on formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded (FFPE) sections. Mouse kidney tissue was fixed with 10% buffered formalin containing 1% Alcian blue (ALB) via perfusion and immersion. FFPE sections were observed by light microscopy (LM) and LVSEM, and formalin-fixed epoxy resin-embedded ultrathin sections were observed by transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The endothelial GCX from various levels of kidney blood vessels was stained blue in LM and confirmed as a thin osmiophilic layer in TEM. In LVSEM, the sections stained by periodic acid methenamine silver (PAM) revealed the endothelial GCX as a layer of dense silver-enhanced particles, in both the samples fixed via perfusion and immersion. Correlative light and electron microscopy (CLEM) revealed the fine visible structure of endothelial GCX. This simple method using FFPE samples with ALB will enable the three-dimensional evaluation of endothelial GCX alterations in various human diseases associated with endothelial injury in future studies.

Characteristic electron-microscopic features of cryofibrinogen-associated glomerulonephritis: a case report.

BACKGROUND: Cryofibrinogenemia is a rare disorder that mainly affects the skin and occasionally the kidney. However, there are few published reports of cryofibrinogenemia-associated renal pathology. We therefore report a patient with cryofibrinogen-associated glomerulonephritis. Samples from this patient were examined by electron microscopy, laser microdissection, and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). CASE PRESENTATION: A 78-year-old Japanese man presented with declining renal function, proteinuria, and gross hematuria. Kidney biopsy showed a membranoproliferative pattern with crescent formation and dominant C3c deposition in which subendothelial deposits with uniquely organized electron-microscopic features were observed. Additional ultrastructural analysis of cryoprecipitates extracted from plasma revealed similar structures of the glomerular subendothelial deposits. LC-MS/MS identified an increase in fibrinogen α, ß, and γ chains, fibronectin, filamin-A, and C3. The glomerular lesions were diagnosed as cryofibrinogen-associated glomerulonephritis on the basis of these findings. CONCLUSIONS: Although there are few reports of cryofibrinogen-associated glomerulonephritis, we believe that accurate diagnosis can be achieved by performing LC-MS/MS and ultrastructural analysis.

Proteomics of human glomerulonephritis by laser microdissection and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry.

AIM: Laser microdissection (LMD) and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) enable clinicians to analyse proteins from tissue sections. In nephrology, these methods are used to diagnose diseases of abnormal protein deposition, such as amyloidosis, but they are seldom applied to the diagnosis and pathophysiological understanding of human glomerular diseases. METHODS: Renal biopsy specimens were obtained from five patients with IgA nephropathy (IgAN), five patients with membranous nephropathy (MN) and five kidney transplant donors (as controls). From 10-µm-thick sections of formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded specimens, 0.3-mm2 samples of glomerular tissue were subjected to LMD. The samples were analysed by LC-MS/MS and investigated clinically and histologically. RESULTS: From the control glomeruli, we identified more than 300 types of proteins. In patients with IgAN, we detected significant increases not only in IgA1 and in C3, but also in the factors related to oxidative stress and cell proliferation in comparison to the controls. In patients with MN, levels of IgG1, IgG4, C3, C4a and phospholipase-A2-receptor were significantly elevated in comparison to the controls, as were the aforementioned factors related to oxidative stress and cell proliferations detected in IgAN. CONCLUSION: Application of LMD and LC-MS/MS to renal biopsy specimens enabled us to identify not only pathognomonic proteins for the diagnosis, but also several factors possibly involved in the pathogenesis of human glomerular diseases.

Optimal conditions and the advantages of using laser microdissection and liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry for diagnosing renal amyloidosis.

BACKGROUND: Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) has recently been utilized to accurately detect the amyloid proteins of renal amyloidosis. The present study investigated the optimal procedures for analyzing samples by LCMS/MS, and the advantage of using this technique to diagnosis renal amyloidosis. METHODS: To detect amyloid proteins, laser microdissected glomeruli from AL (n = 13) or AA (n = 10) renal amyloidosis patients were digested and analyzed by LCMS/MS. To determine the best procedures for analyzing samples by LCMS/MS, we examined the suitability of tissue samples, frozen or formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded (FFPE), the number of dissected glomeruli required for analysis (2, 10, or 50 glomeruli), and the amount of trypsin with or without dithiothreitol (DTT). We additionally compared the detection of amyloid proteins between immunostaining and LCMS/MS. RESULTS: Examining 10 dissected glomeruli from FFPE sections digested with trypsin 3 µL (0.1 mg/mL) without DDT made it possible to detect amyloid protein in all 10 AA and in 10 out of 12 AL amyloidosis cases. All AA amyloidosis cases were diagnosed using immunohistochemistry for amyloid A. With immunostaining, however, there were several inconclusive immunoglobulin and/or their light chain staining noted in the AA or AL amyloidosis cases. Even so, LCMS/MS was able to accurately detect amyloid protein in renal amyloidosis. CONCLUSION: The use of 10 laser microdissected glomeruli (170,000-220,000 µm2) with amyloid deposition from FFPE sections digested with trypsin 3 µL (0.1 mg/mL) allowed the accurate detection of amyloid protein in AA and AL amyloidosis.

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha agonist suppresses neovascularization by reducing both vascular endothelial growth factor and angiopoietin-2 in corneal alkali burn.

We investigated the effect of a peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha (PPARα) agonist ophthalmic solution in wound healing using a rat corneal alkali burn model. After instillation of a selective agonist of PPARα, fenofibrate, onto the burned cornea, PPARα-positive cells were observed in vascular endothelial cells, and there was upregulation of mRNA of PPARα in corneal stroma. Fenofibrate suppressed expression of neutrophils and macrophages during the early phase, and development of neovascularization and myofibroblast generation during the late phase. Fenofibrate reduced not only mRNA expression of vascular endothelial growth factor-A but also angiopoietin-1 and angiopoietin-2. Furthermore, fenofibrate suppressed scar formation by reducing type III collagen expression. These data suggest that a PPARα agonist ophthalmic solution might be a new strategy for treating corneal wounds through not only anti-inflammatory effects but also by preventing neovascularization.

Angiotensin II Destabilizes Coronary Plaques in Watanabe Heritable Hyperlipidemic Rabbits.

OBJECTIVE: Increased plasma concentrations of angiotensin II (Ang II) have been implicated in many cardiovascular diseases, such as atherosclerosis, aortic aneurysms, and myocardial infarction, in humans. However, it is not known whether high levels of plasma Ang II affect coronary plaque stability and subsequent myocardial infarction. This study was designed to examine whether elevated plasma Ang II can directly induce coronary events, such as acute coronary syndrome. APPROACH AND RESULTS: To examine the above hypothesis, we infused Ang II (100 ng/min per kg [low group] and 200 ng/min per kg [high group]) or saline vehicle via osmotic minipumps into Watanabe heritable hyperlipidemic rabbits, a model of human familial hypercholesterolemia and atherosclerosis. Infusion of Ang II resulted in mortality rates of 50% and 92% in the low- and high-Ang II groups, respectively, whereas there were no deaths in the vehicle group. Pathological analysis revealed that Ang II-infused Watanabe heritable hyperlipidemic rabbits that died showed myocardial infarction. Furthermore, Ang II-infused Watanabe heritable hyperlipidemic rabbits exhibited coronary plaque erosion and rupture that were associated with thrombosis. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that increased blood levels of Ang II can destabilize coronary plaques and trigger the thrombosis, which possibly induces myocardial infarction. The model described in this study provides a novel means for the study of human acute coronary syndrome.

Endothelial cell injury in acute and chronic glomerular lesions in patients with IgA nephropathy.

Endothelial cell injury may contribute to the progression of various glomerular diseases. In the present study, we examined glomerular capillary injury in acute and chronic glomerular lesions in patients with Immunoglobulin A nephropathy (IgAN). We selected renal biopsy samples of IgAN (n = 200), and glomerular capillary injury in the acute and chronic glomerular lesions was assessed using immunohistochemistry for CD34 and electron microscopy. We examined the correlations between acute and chronic glomerular lesions and proteinuria, hematuria, and the renal function. The injured glomerular capillaries in the acute glomerular lesions were characterized morphologically by the separation of CD34+ endothelial cells from the glomerular basement membrane and the loss of glomerular endothelial cells and capillaries, together with inflammatory cell infiltration, fibrin exudation, rupture of the glomerular basement membrane, and/or crescent formation. In addition, the injured capillaries in the chronic glomerular lesions were characterized by the loss of CD34+ glomerular endothelial cells and capillaries exhibiting segmental and global glomerular sclerosis with or without fibrous crescents. In the acute glomerular lesions, the presence of endocapillary hypercellularity, fibrinoid necrosis, and cellular and fibrocellular crescents correlated significantly with hematuria, with or without proteinuria. In the chronic glomerular lesions, a significant relationship was evident between segmental or global sclerosis and proteinuria and/or the serum creatinine level. In conclusion, injuries of glomerular capillaries and the loss of endothelial cells occurred in the acute and chronic glomerular lesions in IgAN and may contribute to the development of hematuria, proteinuria, and renal dysfunction.

Carbonate ion-enriched hot spring water promotes skin wound healing in nude rats.

Hot spring or hot spa bathing (Onsen) is a traditional therapy for the treatment of certain ailments. There is a common belief that hot spring bathing has therapeutic effects for wound healing, yet the underlying molecular mechanisms remain unclear. To examine this hypothesis, we investigated the effects of Nagano hot spring water (rich in carbonate ion, 42°C) on the healing process of the skin using a nude rat skin wound model. We found that hot spring bathing led to an enhanced healing speed compared to both the unbathed and hot-water (42°C) control groups. Histologically, the hot spring water group showed increased vessel density and reduced inflammatory cells in the granulation tissue of the wound area. Real-time RT-PCR analysis along with zymography revealed that the wound area of the hot spring water group exhibited a higher expression of matrix metalloproteinases-2 and -9 compared to the two other control groups. Furthermore, we found that the enhanced wound healing process induced by the carbonate ion-enriched hot spring water was mediated by thermal insulation and moisture maintenance. Our results provide the evidence that carbonate ion-enriched hot spring water is beneficial for the treatment of skin wounds.

Probucol suppresses macrophage infiltration and MMP expression in atherosclerotic plaques of WHHL rabbits.

AIM: Probucol is a lipid-lowering drug that is often prescribed for the treatment of familial hypercholesterolemia. However, it is not known whether probucol can change the lesion quality of atherosclerosis. METHODS: We examined this possibility using WHHL rabbits, a model of human familial hypercholesterolemia. Three-month-old male WHHL rabbits were treated with either probucol(85 mg/kg/day) or atorvastatin(6 mg/kg/day) for 16 weeks, and their plasma lipid levels and atherosclerotic lesions were compared with those of a control group. RESULTS: We found that probucol treatment reduced the plasma cholesterol levels, but less remarkably than atorvastatin treatment. In spite of this, probucol treatment led to a prominent reduction of aortic en face lesions by 39%(P＜0.01), whereas atorvastatin reduced these by 16%(P＞0.05), compared with those in the control. Histological examinations revealed that the aortic lesions of probucol-treated rabbits were characterized by reduced macrophages and increased smooth muscle cells compared with those from both the control and atorvastatin groups. Furthermore, probucol treatment reduced the coronary artery stenosis and increased the plaque stability. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that probucol treatment may have beneficial effects on the plaque stability of hypercholesterolemic patients.