Limited training and transfer effects in older and young adults who participated in 12 sessions of process-based working memory training. A three-armed pretest-posttest design study.

OBJECTIVE: Numerous studies confirm the effectiveness of cognitive training in older adults. However, there is limited evidence of the transfer occurrence. The part of the study presented here tested the effect of 12 process-based working memory training sessions on the performance of the trained task (training effect) and other cognitive tasks (transfer effect). A pretest-posttest study design with one experimental group and two control (passive and active) groups. The sample comprised three groups of older adults: experimental (n = 25), passive control (n = 22), active control (n = 7), and young adults: experimental (n = 25), passive control (n = 25), and active control (n = 12). The study was registered after completion with a ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT06235840 on 31 January 2024. RESULTS: Under the influence of training, the performance of the trained task improved significantly, but only in young adults. Transfer of WM training effects was not revealed. Among young adults, a testing effect was observed for the indicator of attentional focus and psychomotor speed. Moreover, the obtained results suggest the transfer from practice in multi-domain training, implemented in the active control group, to tasks that require the use of fluid intelligence. However, this finding should be interpreted with great caution due to the small size of active control groups.

Transfer of visual perceptual learning over a task-irrelevant feature through feature-invariant representations: Behavioral experiments and model simulations.

A large body of literature has examined specificity and transfer of perceptual learning, suggesting a complex picture. Here, we distinguish between transfer over variations in a "task-relevant" feature (e.g., transfer of a learned orientation task to a different reference orientation) and transfer over a "task-irrelevant" feature (e.g., transfer of a learned orientation task to a different retinal location or different spatial frequency), and we focus on the mechanism for the latter. Experimentally, we assessed whether learning a judgment of one feature (such as orientation) using one value of an irrelevant feature (e.g., spatial frequency) transfers to another value of the irrelevant feature. Experiment 1 examined whether learning in eight-alternative orientation identification with one or multiple spatial frequencies transfers to stimuli at five different spatial frequencies. Experiment 2 paralleled Experiment 1, examining whether learning in eight-alternative spatial-frequency identification at one or multiple orientations transfers to stimuli with five different orientations. Training the orientation task with a single spatial frequency transferred widely to all other spatial frequencies, with a tendency to specificity when training with the highest spatial frequency. Training the spatial frequency task fully transferred across all orientations. Computationally, we extended the identification integrated reweighting theory (I-IRT) to account for the transfer data (Dosher, Liu, & Lu, 2023; Liu, Dosher, & Lu, 2023). Just as location-invariant representations in the original IRT explain transfer over retinal locations, incorporating feature-invariant representations effectively accounted for the observed transfer. Taken together, we suggest that feature-invariant representations can account for transfer of learning over a "task-irrelevant" feature.

A cross-dataset adaptive domain selection transfer learning framework for motor imagery-based brain-computer interfaces.

Objective. In brain-computer interfaces (BCIs) that utilize motor imagery (MI), minimizing calibration time has become increasingly critical for real-world applications. Recently, transfer learning (TL) has been shown to effectively reduce the calibration time in MI-BCIs. However, variations in data distribution among subjects can significantly influence the performance of TL in MI-BCIs.Approach.We propose a cross-dataset adaptive domain selection transfer learning framework that integrates domain selection, data alignment, and an enhanced common spatial pattern (CSP) algorithm. Our approach uses a huge dataset of 109 subjects as the source domain. We begin by identifying non-BCI illiterate subjects from this huge dataset, then determine the source domain subjects most closely aligned with the target subjects using maximum mean discrepancy. After undergoing Euclidean alignment processing, features are extracted by multiple composite CSP. The final classification is carried out using the support vector machine.Main results.Our findings indicate that the proposed technique outperforms existing methods, achieving classification accuracies of 75.05% and 76.82% in two cross-dataset experiments, respectively.Significance.By reducing the need for extensive training data, yet maintaining high accuracy, our method optimizes the practical implementation of MI-BCIs.

Perception of enhanced learning in medicine through integrating of virtual patients: an exploratory study on knowledge acquisition and transfer.

INTRODUCTION: Virtual Patients (VPs) have been shown to improve various aspects of medical learning, however, research has scarcely delved into the specific factors that facilitate the knowledge gain and transfer of knowledge from the classroom to real-world applications. This exploratory study aims to understand the impact of integrating VPs into classroom learning on students' perceptions of knowledge acquisition and transfer. METHODS: The study was integrated into an elective course on "Personalized Medicine in Cancer Treatment and Care," employing a qualitative and quantitative approach. Twenty-two second-year medical undergraduates engaged in a VP session, which included role modeling, practice with various authentic cases, group discussion on feedback, and a plenary session. Student perceptions of their learning were measured through surveys and focus group interviews and analyzed using descriptive statistics and thematic analysis. RESULTS: Quantitative data shows that students highly valued the role modeling introduction, scoring it 4.42 out of 5, and acknowledged the practice with VPs in enhancing their subject matter understanding, with an average score of 4.0 out of 5. However, students' reflections on peer dialogue on feedback received mixed reviews, averaging a score of 3.24 out of 5. Qualitative analysis (of focus-group interviews) unearthed the following four themes: 'Which steps to take in clinical reasoning', 'Challenging their reasoning to enhance deeper understanding', 'Transfer of knowledge ', and ' Enhance Reasoning through Reflections'. Quantitative and qualitative data are cohered. CONCLUSION: The study demonstrates evidence for the improvement of learning by incorporating VPs with learning activities. This integration enhances students' perceptions of knowledge acquisition and transfer, thereby potentially elevating students' preparedness for real-world clinical settings. Key facets like expert role modeling and various authentic case exposures were valued for fostering a deeper understanding and active engagement, though with some mixed responses towards peer feedback discussions. While the preliminary findings are encouraging, the necessity for further research to refine feedback mechanisms and explore a broader spectrum of medical disciplines with larger sample sizes is underscored. This exploration lays a groundwork for future endeavors aimed at optimizing VP-based learning experiences in medical education.

Post-stroke hand gesture recognition via one-shot transfer learning using prototypical networks.

BACKGROUND: In-home rehabilitation systems are a promising, potential alternative to conventional therapy for stroke survivors. Unfortunately, physiological differences between participants and sensor displacement in wearable sensors pose a significant challenge to classifier performance, particularly for people with stroke who may encounter difficulties repeatedly performing trials. This makes it challenging to create reliable in-home rehabilitation systems that can accurately classify gestures. METHODS: Twenty individuals who suffered a stroke performed seven different gestures (mass flexion, mass extension, wrist volar flexion, wrist dorsiflexion, forearm pronation, forearm supination, and rest) related to activities of daily living. They performed these gestures while wearing EMG sensors on the forearm, as well as FMG sensors and an IMU on the wrist. We developed a model based on prototypical networks for one-shot transfer learning, K-Best feature selection, and increased window size to improve model accuracy. Our model was evaluated against conventional transfer learning with neural networks, as well as subject-dependent and subject-independent classifiers: neural networks, LGBM, LDA, and SVM. RESULTS: Our proposed model achieved 82.2% hand-gesture classification accuracy, which was better (P<0.05) than one-shot transfer learning with neural networks (63.17%), neural networks (59.72%), LGBM (65.09%), LDA (63.35%), and SVM (54.5%). In addition, our model performed similarly to subject-dependent classifiers, slightly lower than SVM (83.84%) but higher than neural networks (81.62%), LGBM (80.79%), and LDA (74.89%). Using K-Best features improved the accuracy in 3 of the 6 classifiers used for evaluation, while not affecting the accuracy in the other classifiers. Increasing the window size improved the accuracy of all the classifiers by an average of 4.28%. CONCLUSION: Our proposed model showed significant improvements in hand-gesture recognition accuracy in individuals who have had a stroke as compared with conventional transfer learning, neural networks and traditional machine learning approaches. In addition, K-Best feature selection and increased window size can further improve the accuracy. This approach could help to alleviate the impact of physiological differences and create a subject-independent model for stroke survivors that improves the classification accuracy of wearable sensors. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER: The study was registered in Chinese Clinical Trial Registry with registration number CHiCTR1800017568 in 2018/08/04.

Can touchscreens replace teachers? Chinese children's character learning from a touchscreen-based app, video, or face-to-face instruction.

Given the increasing prevalence of touchscreen devices that are intended for educational purposes, this study explored children's transfer of learning from touchscreen media compared with video and offline face-to-face learning. A total of 76 5- and 6-year-old Chinese kindergarten children (M = 68.21 months, SD = 3.57, range = 62-76; 30 boys and 46 girls) were randomly assigned to learn eight Chinese characters using a touchscreen-based app, using a video, or through face-to-face interaction. Learning was measured via the recall task scores, recognition task scores, recall efficiency, and recognition efficiency. The results revealed that children's recall and recognition task scores improved when learning took place using the touchscreen or face-to-face interaction. Children's recall efficiency and recognition efficiency were strongest in the face-to-face condition, followed by the touchscreen condition and then the video condition. The effects of instructional format on children's recall and recognition scores and recall efficiency were moderated by age; younger children's recall and recognition scores in the face-to-face condition and the touchscreen condition were significantly higher than in the video condition, yet older children's recall and recognition scores did not differ between conditions. However, for recall efficiency, younger children's recall efficiency in the face-to-face condition and the touchscreen condition was significantly higher than in the video condition; older children's recall efficiency in the face-to-face condition was higher than in both the touchscreen condition and the video condition. In conclusion, both face-to-face interaction and a touchscreen-based app were helpful ways for children to learn Chinese characters compared with video, but face-to-face learning showed advantages over touchscreen learning in recall efficiency for older children.

Visual feedbacks influence short-term learning of torque versus motion profile with robotic guidance among young adults.

Robotic assistance can improve the learning of complex motor skills. However, the assistance designed and used up to now mainly guides motor commands for trajectory learning, not dynamics learning. The present study explored how a complex motor skill involving the right arm can be learned without suppressing task dynamics, by means of an innovative device with robotic guidance that allows a torque versus motion profile to be learned with admittance control. In addition, we assessed how concurrent visual feedback on this profile can enhance learning without creating dependency, by means of a fading procedure (i.e., feedback reduction across trials). On Day 1, a Control group performed an acquisition session (6 blocks) featuring concurrent visual feedback, while a Fading group performed the session with a gradual reduction in feedback (from 100% to 0% over the 6 blocks). On Day 2, both groups performed a block first without feedback (i.e., Transfer test), then with feedback (i.e., Retention test). Results revealed that on Day 1, movement rehearsal induced a significant improvement in spatiotemporal parameters for the Control group, compared with the Fading group. On Day 2, the opposite was found when this visual feedback was removed, as the Fading group performed significantly better than the Control group on the Transfer test. Vision allows a relationship to be established between the required torque and the motion profile. Its suppression then forces the processing of more intrinsic information, leading to the development of a stable internal representation of the task.

Stimulating prefrontal cortex facilitates training transfer by increasing representational overlap.

A recent hypothesis characterizes difficulties in multitasking as being the price humans pay for our ability to generalize learning across tasks. The mitigation of these costs through training has been associated with reduced overlap of constituent task representations within frontal, parietal, and subcortical regions. Transcranial direct current stimulation, which can modulate functional brain activity, has shown promise in generalizing performance gains when combined with multitasking training. However, the relationship between combined transcranial direct current stimulation and training protocols with task-associated representational overlap in the brain remains unexplored. Here, we paired prefrontal cortex transcranial direct current stimulation with multitasking training in 178 individuals and collected functional magnetic resonance imaging data pre- and post-training. We found that 1 mA transcranial direct current stimulation applied to the prefrontal cortex paired with multitasking training enhanced training transfer to spatial attention, as assessed via a visual search task. Using machine learning to assess the overlap of neural activity related to the training task in task-relevant brain regions, we found that visual search gains were predicted by changes in classification accuracy in frontal, parietal, and cerebellar regions for participants that received left prefrontal cortex stimulation. These findings demonstrate that prefrontal cortex transcranial direct current stimulation may interact with training-related changes to task representations, facilitating the generalization of learning.

Virtual reality as a method of cognitive training of processing speed, working memory, and sustained attention in persons with acquired brain injury: a protocol for a randomized controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Acquired brain injury (ABI) often leads to persisting somatic, cognitive, and social impairments. Cognitive impairments of processing speed, sustained attention, and working memory are frequently reported and may negatively affect activities of daily living and quality of life. Rehabilitation efforts aiming to retrain these cognitive functions have often consisted of computerized training programs. However, few studies have demonstrated effects that transfer beyond the trained tasks. There is a growing optimism regarding the potential usefulness of virtual reality (VR) in cognitive rehabilitation. The research literature is sparse, and existing studies are characterized by considerable methodological weaknesses. There is also a lack of knowledge about the acceptance and tolerability of VR as an intervention method for people with ABI. The present study aims to investigate whether playing a commercially available VR game is effective in training cognitive functions after ABI and to explore if the possible effects transfer into everyday functioning. METHODS: One hundred participants (18-65 years), with a verified ABI, impairments of processing speed/attention, and/or working memory, and a minimum of 12 months post injury will be recruited. Participants with severe aphasia, apraxia, visual neglect, epilepsy, and severe mental illness will be excluded. Participants will be randomized into two parallel groups: (1) an intervention group playing a commercial VR game taxing processing speed, working memory, and sustained attention; (2) an active control group receiving psychoeducation regarding compensatory strategies, and general cognitive training tasks such as crossword puzzles or sudoku. The intervention period is 5 weeks. The VR group will be asked to train at home for 30 min 5 days per week. Each participant will be assessed at baseline with neuropsychological tests and questionnaires, after the end of the intervention (5 weeks), and 16 weeks after baseline. After the end of the intervention period, focus group interviews will be conducted with 10 of the participants in the intervention group, in order to investigate acceptance and tolerability of VR as a training method. DISCUSSION: This study will contribute to improve understanding of how VR is tolerated and experienced by the ABI population. If proven effective, the study can contribute to new rehabilitation methods that persons with ABI can utilize in a home setting, after the post-acute rehabilitation has ended.

The effect of tDCS on inhibitory control and its transfer effect on sustained attention in children with autism spectrum disorder: An fNIRS study.

BACKGROUND: Individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) have inhibitory control deficits. The combination of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) and inhibitory control training produces good transfer effects and improves neuroplasticity. However, no studies have explored whether applying tDCS over the dlPFC improves inhibitory control and produces transfer effects in children with ASD. OBJECTIVE: To explore whether multisession tDCS could enhance inhibitory control training (response inhibition), near-transfer (interference control) and far-transfer effects (sustained attention; stability of attention) in children with ASD and the generalizability of training effects in daily life and the class, as reflected by behavioral performance and neural activity measured by functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS). METHODS: Twenty-eight autistic children were randomly assigned to either the true or sham tDCS group. The experimental group received bifrontal tDCS stimulation at 1.5 mA, administered for 15 min daily across eight consecutive days. tDCS was delivered during a computerized Go/No-go training task. Behavioral performance in terms of inhibitory control (Dog/Monkey and Day/Night Stroop tasks), sustained attention (Continuous Performance and Cancellation tests), prefrontal cortex (PFC) neural activity and inhibitory control and sustained attention in the class and at home were evaluated. RESULTS: Training (response inhibition) and transfer effects (interference control; sustained attention) were significantly greater after receiving tDCS during the Go/No-go training task than after receiving sham tDCS. Changes in oxyhemoglobin (HbO) concentrations in the dlPFC and FPA associated with consistent conditions in the Day/Night Stroop and Continuous Performance test were observed after applying tDCS during the inhibitory control training task. Notably, transfer effects can be generalized to classroom environments. CONCLUSION: Inhibitory control training combined with tDCS may be a promising, safe, and effective method for improving inhibitory control and sustained attention in children with ASD.

Attention control training and transfer effects on cognitive tasks.

Attention control is the common element underlying different executive functions. The backward Masking Majority Function Task (MFT-M) requires intensive attention control, and represents a diverse situation where attentional resources need to be allocated dynamically and flexibly to reduce uncertainty. Aiming to train attention control using MFT-M and examine the training transfer effects in various executive functions, we recruited healthy young adults (n = 84) and then equally randomized them into two groups trained with either MFT-M or a sham program for seven consecutive days. Cognitive evaluations were conducted before and after the training, and the electroencephalograph (EEG) signals were recorded for the revised Attention Network Test (ANT-R), N-back, and Task-switching (TS) tasks. Compared to the control group, the training group performed better on the congruent condition of Flanker and the double-congruency condition of Flanker and Location in the ANT-R task, and on the learning trials in the verbal memory test. The training group also showed a larger P2 amplitude decrease and P3 amplitude increase in the 2-back task and a larger P3 amplitude increase in the TS task's repeat condition than the control group, indicating improved neural efficiency in two tasks' attentional processes. Introversion moderated the transfer effects of training, as indicated by the significant group*introversion interactions on the post-training 1-back efficiency and TS switching cost. Our results suggested that attention control training with the MFT-M showed a broad transfer scope, and the transfer effect was influenced by the form of training task. Introversion facilitated the transfer to working memory and hindered the transfer to flexibility.

A novel garment transfer method supervised by distilled knowledge of virtual try-on model.

Garment transfer can wear the garment of the model image onto the personal image. As garment transfer leverages wild and cheap garment input, it has attracted tremendous attention in the community and has a huge commercial potential. Since the ground truth of garment transfer is almost unavailable in reality, previous studies have treated garment transfer as either pose transfer or garment-pose disentanglement, and trained garment transfer in self-supervised learning, However, these implementation methods do not cover garment transfer intentions completely and face the robustness issue in the testing phase. Notably, virtual try-on technology has exhibited superior performance using self-supervised learning, we propose to supervise the garment transfer training via knowledge distillation from virtual try-on. Specifically, the overall pipeline is first to infer a garment transfer parsing, and to use it to guide downstream warping and inpainting tasks. The transfer parsing reasoning model learns the response and feature knowledge from the try-on parsing reasoning model and absorbs the hard knowledge from the ground truth. The progressive flow warping model learns the content knowledge from virtual try-on for a reasonable and precise garment warping. To enhance transfer realism, we propose an arm regrowth task to infer exposed skin. Experiments demonstrate that our method has state-of-the-art performance in transferring garments between persons compared with other virtual try-on and garment transfer methods.

Youth-like brain activation linked with greater cognitive training gains in older adults: Insights from the ACTOP study.

This study investigates the relationship between inter-individual neurofunctional differences in older adults and cognitive training efficacy, with a specific focus on the association between youth-like task-related brain activation and improvements in working memory (WM) training. The data is part of the Attentional Control Training for Older People (ACTOP) study, 30 older adults completed 12 half-hour WM training sessions. The WM performance slope, assessed at the conclusion of sessions 1 through 6 and sessions 7 to 12, determined early- and late-stage training gains, respectively. Transfer measures were taken before (PRE), midway (MID), and after (POST) training, and the differences in MID-PRE and POST-MID on transfer tasks were used to determine early- and late-stage transfer effects, respectively. The Goodness of Fit (GOF) metric was used to quantify the similarity between each older adult's activation pattern, as measured with functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), to that of a group of younger adults. GOF scores were calculated for activation during low-load (1-0back) and high-load (2-0back) N-back tasks. The results indicated that larger GOF scores in the low-load condition were associated with greater training gains in both the early and late learning stages, and that larger GOF scores in the high-load condition were associated with greater training gains during the late-stage. These findings suggest that a youth-like brain activation pattern in older adults is associated with greater cognitive training benefits, underscoring the role of inter-individual neurofunctional differences to account for variations in training outcomes among older adults. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov NCT03532113; https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT03532113.

Transfer of statistical learning between tasks.

Recent studies have shown that observers can learn to suppress locations in the visual field with a high distractor probability. Here, we investigated whether this learned suppression resulting from a spatial distractor imbalance transfers to a completely different search task that does not contain any distractors. Observers performed the additional singleton task and learned to suppress the location that was likely to contain a color singleton distractor. Within a block, the additional singleton task would randomly switch to a T-among-L task where observers searched in parallel (Experiment 1) or serially (Experiment 2) for a T among Ls. The upcoming search was either unpredictable (Experiment 1/2A) or cued (Experiment 1/2B). The results show that there was transfer of learning from one to the other task as the learned suppression stayed in place after the switch regardless of whether the T-among-L task was performed via parallel or serial search. Moreover, cueing that the task would switch had no effect on performance. The current findings indicate that implicit learned biases are rather inflexible and remain in place even when the task and the required search strategy are dramatically different and even when participants can anticipate that a change in the search required is imminent. This transfer of the suppression to a different task is consistent with the notion that suppression is proactively applied. Because the location is already suppressed proactively, that is, before display onset, regardless which display and task is presented, the suppressed location competes less for attention than all other locations. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Implicit visuospatial sequence representations are accessible in both the practice and the transfer hand.

A serial reaction time task was used to test whether the representations of a probabilistic second-order sequence structure are (i) stored in an effector-dependent, effector-independent intrinsic or effector-independent visuospatial code and (ii) are inter-manually accessible. Participants were trained either with the dominant or non-dominant hand. Tests were performed with both hands in the practice sequence, a random sequence, and a mirror sequence. Learning did not differ significantly between left and right-hand practice, suggesting symmetric intermanual transfer from the dominant to the non-dominant hand and vice versa. In the posttest, RTs were shorter for the practice sequence than for the random sequence, and longest for the mirror sequence. Participants were unable to freely generate or recognize the practice sequence, indicating implicit knowledge of the probabilistic sequence structure. Because sequence-specific learning did not differ significantly between hands, we conclude that representations of the probabilistic sequence structure are stored in an effector-independent visuospatial code.

Feature variability determines specificity and transfer in multiorientation feature detection learning.

Historically, in many perceptual learning experiments, only a single stimulus is practiced, and learning is often specific to the trained feature. Our prior work has demonstrated that multi-stimulus learning (e.g., training-plus-exposure procedure) has the potential to achieve generalization. Here, we investigated two important characteristics of multi-stimulus learning, namely, roving and feature variability, and their impacts on multi-stimulus learning and generalization. We adopted a feature detection task in which an oddly oriented target bar differed by 16° from the background bars. The stimulus onset asynchrony threshold between the target and the mask was measured with a staircase procedure. Observers were trained with four target orientation search stimuli, either with a 5° deviation (30°-35°-40°-45°) or with a 45° deviation (30°-75°-120°-165°), and the four reference stimuli were presented in a roving manner. The transfer of learning to the swapped target-background orientations was evaluated after training. We found that multi-stimulus training with a 5° deviation resulted in significant learning improvement, but learning failed to transfer to the swapped target-background orientations. In contrast, training with a 45° deviation slowed learning but produced a significant generalization to swapped orientations. Furthermore, a modified training-plus-exposure procedure, in which observers were trained with four orientation search stimuli with a 5° deviation and simultaneously passively exposed to orientations with high feature variability (45° deviation), led to significant orientation learning generalization. Learning transfer also occurred when the four orientation search stimuli with a 5° deviation were presented in separate blocks. These results help us to specify the condition under which multistimuli learning produces generalization, which holds potential for real-world applications of perceptual learning, such as vision rehabilitation and expert training.

From integers to fractions: The role of analogy in transfer and long-term learning.

Fractions are the gatekeepers to advanced mathematics but are difficult to learn. One powerful learning mechanism is analogy, which builds fraction understanding on a pre-existing foundation of integer knowledge. Indeed, a short intervention that aligned fractions and integers on number lines improved children's estimates of fractions (Yu et al., 2022). The breadth and durability of such gains, however, are unknown, and analogies to other sources (such as percentages) may be equally powerful. To investigate this issue, we randomly assigned 109 fourth and fifth graders to one of three experimental conditions with different analogical sources (integers, percentages, or fractions) or a control condition. During training, children in the experimental conditions solved pairs of aligned fraction number line problems and proportionally-equivalent problems expressed in integers, percentages, or fractions (e.g., 3/8 on a 0-1 number line aligned with 3 on a 0-8 number line). Children in the control group solved fraction number-line problems sequentially. At pretest and a two-week delayed posttest, children completed a broad fraction knowledge battery, including estimation, comparison, categorization, ordering, and arithmetic. Results showed that aligning integers and fractions on number lines facilitated better estimation of fractional magnitudes, and the training effect transferred to novel fraction problems after two weeks. Similar gains were not observed for analogies using percentages. These findings highlight the importance of building new mathematical knowledge through analogies to familiar, similar sources.

Between-task transfer of item-specific control is replicable and extends to novel conditions.

Learning-guided control refers to adjustments of cognitive control settings based on learned associations between predictive cues and the likelihood of conflict. In three preregistered experiments, we examined transfer of item-specific control settings beyond conditions under which they were learned. In Experiment 1, an item-specific proportion congruence (ISPC) manipulation was applied in a training phase in which target color in a Flanker task was biased (mostly congruent or mostly incongruent). In a subsequent transfer phase, participants performed a color-word Stroop task in which the same target colors were unbiased (50% congruent). The same design was implemented in Experiment 2, but training and transfer tasks were intermixed within blocks. Between-task transfer was evidenced in both experiments, suggesting learned control settings associated with the predictive cues were retrieved when encountering unbiased transfer items. In Experiment 3, we investigated a farther version of between-task transfer by using training (color-word Stroop) and transfer (picture-word Stroop) tasks that did not share the relevant (to-be-named) dimension or response sets. Despite the stronger, between-task boundary, we observed an ISPC effect for the transfer items, but it did not emerge until the second half of the experiment. The results provided converging evidence for the flexibility and automaticity of item-specific control. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Dual-Task and Single-Task Practice Does Not Influence the Attentional Demands of Movement Sequence Representations.

This study examined the attentional demands of movement sequence representations at different temporal points after single- or dual-task practice. The visual-spatial representation encodes the movement based on visual-spatial coordinates such as the target locations. The motor representation encodes the movement in motor coordinates including joint angles and muscle activation patterns. Participants were randomly assigned to a single-task or dual-task practice group. Following acquisition, participants performed two retention tests and inter-manual transfer tests, both under dual-task and single-task. The transfer tests consisted of a mirror and non-mirror test and examined motor and visual-spatial representation development. The main finding is that attentional demands of the sequence representations were not affected by the practice condition. However, movement initiation requires more attention than the end of the movement in both representations.

Errorless Training Benefits Motor Learning and Kinematic Outcomes in Children With Autism Spectrum Disorders.

Most children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) have some form of motor deficits. Additionally, based on executive dysfunction, working memory is often atypical in these children. Errorless learning reduces demands on working memory. In this study, we investigated the effectiveness of errorless training on these children's ability to learn golf putting. Participants (N = 20), aged 9-13 years (M = 10.15, SD = 1.4), were randomly assigned to either: (a) an errorless (ER) training group (n = 10) or (b) an explicit instruction (EI) group (n = 10). The ER group practiced putting from different distances without any instruction, while the EI group practiced putting at a particular distance with instruction. We measured motor performance (e.g., putting accuracy) and kinematic variables (e.g., putter face angle). One-way analyses of variance showed that motor performance significantly improved in both groups, but that the ER group showed significantly better accuracy retention (p < .028) and transfer learning (p < .047) than the instructional group. Kinematic variables were also significantly different between the two groups on the transfer test. These findings supported the benefits of errorless training compared to explicit instruction to teach motor skills to children with ASD.