Resource needs and gap analysis in achieving universal access to HIV/AIDS services: a data envelopment analysis of 45 countries.

BACKGROUND: -To manage the human immunodeficiency virus and acquired immune deficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS) epidemic, international donors have pledged unprecedented commitments for needed services. The Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) projected that low- and middle-income countries needed $25 billion to meet the 2010 HIV/AIDS goal of universal access to AIDS prevention and care, using the resource needs model (RNM). METHODS: -Drawing from the results from its sister study, which used a data envelopment analysis (DEA) and a Tobit model to evaluate and adjust the technical efficiency of 61 countries in delivering HIV/AIDS services from 2002 to 2007, this study extended the DEA and developed an approach to estimate resource needs and decompose the performance gap into efficiency gap and resource gap. In the DEA, we considered national HIV/AIDS spending as the input and volume of voluntary counseling and testing (VCT), prevention of mother to child transmission (PMTCT) and antiretroviral treatment (ART) as the outputs. An input-oriented DEA model was constructed to project resource needs in achieving 2010 HIV/AIDS goal for 45 countries using the data in 2006, assuming that all study countries maximized efficiency. FINDINGS: -The DEA approach demonstrated the potential to include efficiency of national HIV/AIDS programmes in resource needs estimation, using macro-level data. Under maximal efficiency, the annual projected resource needs for the 45 countries was $6.3 billion, ∼47% of their UNAIDS estimate of $13.5 billion. Given study countries' spending of $3.9 billion, improving efficiency could narrow the gap from $9.6 to $2.4 billion. The results suggest that along with continued financial commitment to HIV/AIDS, improving the efficiency of HIV/AIDS programmes would accelerate the pace to reach 2010 HIV/AIDS goals. The DEA approach provides a supplement to the AIDS RNM to inform policy making.

Efficiency of HIV/AIDS health centers and effect of community-based health insurance and performance-based financing on HIV/AIDS service delivery in Rwanda.

This study evaluates the efficiency of rural health centers in Rwanda in delivering the three key human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome services: antiretroviral treatment, prevention of mother-to-child transmission, and voluntary counseling and testing using data envelopment analysis, and assesses the impact of community-based health insurance (CBHI) and performance-based financing on improving the delivery of the three services. Results show that health centers average efficiency of 78%, and despite the observed variation, the performance increased by 15.6% from 2006 through 2007. When the services are examined separately, each 1% growth of CBHI use was associated with 3.7% more prevention of mother-to-child transmission and 2.5% more voluntary counseling and testing services. Although more health centers would have been needed to evaluate performance-based financing, we found that high use of CBHI in Rwanda was an important contributor to improving human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome services in rural health centers in Rwanda.

A controlled study of funding for human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome as resource capacity building in the health system in Rwanda.

Because human inmmunodeficiency virus/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS) receives more donor funding globally than that for all other diseases combined, some critics allege this support undermines general health care. This empirical study evaluates the impact of HIV/AIDS funding on the primary health care system in Rwanda. Using a quasi-experimental design, we randomly selected 25 rural health centers (HCs) that started comprehensive HIV/AIDS services from 2002 through 2006 as the intervention group. Matched HCs with no HIV/AIDS services formed the control group. The analysis compared growth in inputs and services between intervention and control HCs with a difference-in-difference analysis in a random-effects model. Intervention HCs performed better than control HCs in most services (seven of nine), although only one of these improvements (Bacille Calmette-Guérin vaccination) reached or approached statistical significance. In conclusion, this six-year controlled study found no adverse effects of the expansion of HIV/AIDS services on non-HIV services among rural health centers in Rwanda.

How much can we gain from improved efficiency? An examination of performance of national HIV/AIDS programs and its determinants in low- and middle-income countries.

BACKGROUND: The economic downturn exacerbates the inadequacy of resources for combating the worldwide HIV/AIDS pandemic and amplifies the need to improve the efficiency of HIV/AIDS programs. METHODS: We used data envelopment analysis (DEA) to evaluate efficiency of national HIV/AIDS programs in transforming funding into services and implemented a Tobit model to identify determinants of the efficiency in 68 low- and middle-income countries. We considered the change from the lowest quartile to the average value of a variable a "notable" increase. RESULTS: Overall, the average efficiency in implementing HIV/AIDS programs was moderate (49.8%). Program efficiency varied enormously among countries with means by quartile of efficiency of 13.0%, 36.4%, 54.4% and 96.5%. A country's governance, financing mechanisms, and economic and demographic characteristics influence the program efficiency. For example, if countries achieved a notable increase in "voice and accountability" (e.g., greater participation of civil society in policy making), the efficiency of their HIV/AIDS programs would increase by 40.8%. For countries in the lowest quartile of per capita gross national income (GNI), a notable increase in per capita GNI would increase the efficiency of AIDS programs by 45.0%. CONCLUSIONS: There may be substantial opportunity for improving the efficiency of AIDS services, by providing more services with existing resources. Actions beyond the health sector could be important factors affecting HIV/AIDS service delivery.

Pattern and levels of spending allocated to HIV prevention programs in low- and middle-income countries.

BACKGROUND: AIDS continues to spread at an estimated 2.6 new million infections per year, making the prevention of HIV transmission a critical public health issue. The dramatic growth in global resources for AIDS has produced a steady scale-up in treatment and care that has not been equally matched by preventive services. This paper is a detailed analysis of how countries are choosing to spend these more limited prevention funds. METHODS: We analyzed prevention spending in 69 low- and middle-income countries with a variety of epidemic types, using data from national domestic spending reports. Spending information was from public and international sources and was analyzed based on the National AIDS Spending Assessment (NASA) methods and classifications. RESULTS: Overall, prevention received 21% of HIV resources compared to 53% of funding allocated to treatment and care. Prevention relies primarily on international donors, who accounted for 65% of all prevention resources and 93% of funding in low-income countries. For the subset of 53 countries that provided detailed spending information, we found that 60% of prevention resources were spent in five areas: communication for social and behavioral change (16%), voluntary counselling and testing (14%), prevention of mother-to-child transmission (13%), blood safety (10%) and condom programs (7%). Only 7% of funding was spent on most-at-risk populations and less than 1% on male circumcision. Spending patterns did not consistently reflect current evidence and the HIV specific transmission context of each country. CONCLUSIONS: Despite recognition of its importance, countries are not allocating resources in ways that are likely to achieve the greatest impact on prevention across all epidemic types. Within prevention spending itself, a greater share of resources need to be matched with interventions that approximate the specific needs and drivers of each country's epidemic.

Resource flows and levels of spending for the response to HIV and AIDS in Belarus.

BACKGROUND: Belarus has a focused HIV epidemic concentrated among injecting drug users, female sex workers and men who have sex with men. However, until 2008, Belarus had no way of evaluating HIV spending priorities. In 2008, Belarus committed to undertaking a comprehensive National AIDS Spending Assessment (NASA) in order to analyze HIV spending priorities. NASA was used to 'follow the money' from the funding sources to agents and providers, and eventually to beneficiary populations. FINDINGS: Belarus spent the majority of its funding on prevention, diagnosis and treatment of sexually transmitted infections and on securing the blood supply. International donors and NGOs working within Belarus spent the majority of their funding on preventative activities for high risk groups while Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis, and Malaria (GFATM) solely funded antiretroviral treatment. CONCLUSIONS: The data and experience obtained through conducting NASA will help build capacity for future resource tracking activities for HIV and other health priorities. This experience established the foundation for enhanced and future consistent quality-reporting of National Health Accounts. Monitoring the flow of resources for Belarus' HIV response provides valuable strategic information that can improve operations and planning as well as mobilize greater resources. NASA offers Belarusian policy makers an overview of HIV activities that merit their priority attention. In addition, the findings from Belarus are particularly relevant for the rest of the Commonwealth of Independent States due to their similar epidemiological profiles and centrally planned systems. The Belarusian government faces future challenges, especially in increasing public investments in HIV prevention for female sex workers and their clients, men who have sex with men, and among intravenous drug users.

Levels of spending and resource allocation to HIV programs and services in Latin America and the Caribbean.

BACKGROUND: An estimated 1.86 million people are living with HIV in Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC). The region is comprised of mainly middle-income countries with steady economic growth while simultaneously there are enormous social inequalities and several concentrated AIDS epidemics. This paper describes HIV spending patterns in LAC countries including analysis of the levels and patterns of domestic HIV spending from both public and international sources. METHODS AND FINDINGS: We conducted an extensive analysis of the most recently available data from LAC countries using the National AIDS Spending Assessment tool. The LAC countries spent a total of US$ 1.59 billion on HIV programs and services during the latest reported year. Countries providing detailed information on spending showed that high percentages are allocated to treatment and care (75.1%) and prevention (15.0%). Domestic sources accounted for 93.6 percent of overall spending and 79 percent of domestic funds were directed to treatment and care. International funds represented 5.4 percent of total HIV funding in the region, but they supplied the majority of the effort to reach most-at-risk-populations (MARPs). However, prevalence rates among men who have sex with men (MSM) still reached over 25 percent in some countries. CONCLUSIONS: Although countries in the region have increasingly sustained their response from domestic sources, still there are future challenges: 1) The growing number of new HIV infections and more people-living-with-HIV (PLWH) eligible to receive antiretroviral treatment (ART); 2) Increasing ART coverage along with high prices of antiretroviral drugs; and 3) The funding for prevention activities among MARPs rely almost exclusively on external donors. These threats call for strengthened actions by civil society and governments to protect and advance gains against HIV in LAC.

Utilization patterns and projected demand of antiretroviral drugs in low- and middle-income countries.

Background. The rapid scale-up of antiretroviral therapy in resource-limited settings has greatly increased demand for antiretroviral medicines and raised the importance of good forward planning, especially in the context of the new 2010 WHO treatment guidelines. Methods. Forecasting of the number of people receiving antiretroviral therapy from 2010 to 2012 was produced using three approaches: linear projection, country-set targets, and a restricted scenario. Two additional scenarios were then used to project the demand for various antiretroviral medicines under a fast and slower phase-out of stavudine. Results. We projected that between 7.1 million and 8.4 million people would be receiving ART by the end of 2012. Of these, 6.6% will be on second-line therapy. High variation in forecast includes reductions in the demand for d4T and d4T increases in the demand for tenofovir, emtricitabine followed by efavirenz, ritonavir, zidovudine and lopinavir; lamivudine, atazanavir, and nevirapine. Conclusion. Despite the global economic crisis and in response to the revised treatment guidelines, our model forecasts an increasing and shifting demand for antiretrovirals in resource-limited settings not only to provide treatment to new patients, but also to those switching to less toxic regimens.

Asia can afford universal access for AIDS prevention and treatment.

This paper draws on published reports, data from the Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis, and Malaria and the Asian Development Bank, and analysis by the Commission on AIDS in Asia to estimate financial resources required to achieve universal access for HIV in low-income and middle-income countries of Asia. It explores optimal use of available resources to mount effective response to AIDS in Asia against an uncertain economic climate. Although there is global commitment to tackle the HIV pandemic, available financing falls short of minimum requirements to achieve universal access to prevention and treatment. To support essential HIV priorities in Asia, the Commission on AIDS in Asia estimated annual resource needs to be US$ 3.1 billion. Yet, in 2007, according to one study, estimated total public spending on AIDS in 14 major Asian countries was only US$ 0.9 billion. Hence, scarce resources need to be carefully applied to address the concentrated HIV epidemics in Asia and achieve universal coverage by prioritizing investment in high-impact interventions to maximally avert new infections and deaths, intensifying multisectoral efforts through catalytic financing that mainstreams HIV interventions into existing services, particularly for low-impact prevention programs, and ensuring countries with growing economies mobilize increased amounts of domestic funding to match international financing.

Financing the response to HIV in low-income and middle-income countries.

OBJECTIVES: To describe levels of national HIV spending and examine programmatic allocations according to the type of epidemic and country income. METHODS: Cross-sectional analysis of HIV expenditures from 50 low-income and middle-income countries. Sources of information included country reports of domestic spending by programmatic activity and HIV services. These HIV spending categories were cross tabulated by source of financing, stratified by type of HIV epidemic and income level of the country and reported in international dollars (I$). RESULTS: Fifty low-income and middle-income countries spent US $ 2.6 billion (I$ 5.8 billion) on HIV in 2006; 87% of the funding among the 17 low-income countries came from international donors. Average per capita spending was I$ 2.1 and positively correlated with Gross National Income. Per capita spending was I$ 1.5 in 9 countries with low-level HIV epidemics, I$ 1.6 in 27 countries with concentrated HIV epidemics and I$ 9.5 in 14 countries with generalized HIV epidemics. On average, spending on care and treatment represented 50% of AIDS spending across all countries. The treatment-to-prevention spending ratio was 1.5:1, 3:1, and 2:1 in countries with low-level, concentrated and generalized epidemics, respectively. Spending on prevention represented 21% of total AIDS spending. However, expenditures addressing most-at-risk populations represented less than 1% in countries with generalized epidemics and 7% in those with low-level or concentrated epidemics. CONCLUSIONS: The most striking finding is the mismatch between the types of HIV epidemics and the allocation of resources. The current global economic recession will force countries to rethink national strategies, especially in low-income countries with high aid dependency. Mapping HIV expenditures provides crucial guidance for reallocation of resources and supports evidence-based decisions. Now more than ever, countries need to know and act on their epidemics and give priority to the most effective programmatic services.

Reporte de cinco casos pediátricos de histoplasmosis diseminada / Systemic histoplasmosis. Report of five pediatric cases

Introducción. La histoplasmosis constituye la micosis sistémica de mayor prevalencia en el ser humano, predomina en menores de 2 años de edad y en pacientes inmunodeprimidos. Caso clínico. Los 5 casos encontrados fueron del sexo femenino. Las edades variaron de 30 meses a 16 años. La enfermedad principal de los pacientes fue VIH/SIDA en 3/5 casos, lupus eritematoso sistémico 1 caso. El cuadro clínico incluyó: fiebre, tos, dificultad respiratoria, hepatoesplenomegalia, trastornos hematológicos con anemia, leucopenia o trombocitopenia. Las radiografías de tórax mostraron imágenes nodulares múltiples diseminadas a ambos campos pulmonares. Los pacientes fueron manejados con anfotericina B, y todos fallecieron. Las muestras que mostraron Histoplasma capsulatum fueron biopsia de médula ósea y lavado bronquioalveolar. Conclusiones. La histoplasmosis sistémica se asoció en pacientes pediátricos con deterioro del sistema inmunológico, con manifestaciones caracterizadas por síndrome infeccioso, infiltrativo y afección pulmonar, por lo que se debe prestar especial atención a esta etiología en la población en riesgo (especialmente pacientes con VIH/SIDA).

Introduction. Histoplasmosis is one of the most prevalent systemic mycosis in humans. Those younger than 2 years of age, and individuals whose immune systems are compromised, are more likely to develop symptoms. Case reports. All 5 cases were female. The ages of the patients varied from 30 months to 16 years. Concomitant diseases included HIV infection (3) and lupus erythematosus (1). Clinical symptoms were: fever, cough, respiratory distress and hepatosplenomegaly. All had hematologic disorders, anemia, decreased leukocytes count and decreased platelets. Chest roentgenogram showed multiples infiltrates. All the patients received amphotericin B, and all of them died. The clinical specimens that showed Histoplas-ma capsulatum were bone marrow biopsy and bronchoalveolar lavage. Conclusions. Systemic histoplasmosis was associated with patients with deteriorated immunologic system. The patients had clinical evidence of infection, respiratory symptoms and pulmonary infiltrates. In immunocompromised patients with signs and symptoms suggestive of histoplasmosis, empiric antifungal therapy is warranted.

[Teaching and including HIV/AIDS in the curricula of a medical school sample in Mexico]. / La enseñanza del VIH/SIDA y su integración en la curricula en una muestra de escuelas de medicina en México.

BACKGROUND: The HIV/AIDS epidemic is apublic health problem that has had an impact on all health systems around the world. Mexico is no exception. Although it has been acknowledged that we have a concentrated epidemic, the problem continues to grow. OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to evaluate if the medical school curricula in Mexico included the topic of HIV/AIDS and to assess the level of knowledge medical students have about this disease. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Descriptive study of eight medical schools interviewing pre-graduate medical students. RESULTS: Only 15% of the curricula of private medical schools and 21.7% of public schools included the subject of HIV/AIDS. Although it is difficult to standardize this finding, an average of 8.8 hours was assigned to the study of HIV/AIDS. 90% of the professors involved in teaching the topic of HIV/AlDS hadno clinical experience in thefield CONCLUSION: HIV/AIDS is a low priority subject in our medical school curricula. Efforts must be placed to standardize and reinforce this highly important topic.

La enseñanza del VIH/SIDA y su integración en la currícula en una muestra de escuelas de medicina en México / Teaching and including HIV/AIDS in the curricula of a medical school sample in Mexico

Antecedentes: El problema de salud pública de la infección por el VIH/SIDA ha impactado todos los sistemas de salud del mundo. Nuestro país no es ajeno a este problema y aunque se reconoce que México tiene una epidemia concentrada, el problema ha ido creciendo. Objetivo: El objetivo de este trabajo fue conocer si en los contenidos temáticos de las currícula de las escuelas de medicina en México está incluido el estudio del VIH/SIDA, así como evaluar el nivel de conocimientos que los alumnos de medicina tienen respecto a la enfermedad Material y métodos: Se realizó un estudio descriptivo de ocho escuelas de medicina. La unidad de observación fueron los estudiantes de pregrado. Resultados: El porcentaje de materias que incluyen en su currícula conceptos sobre el tema de VIH/SIDA es de 15% en las escuelas privadas y en las públicas de 21.7%. Aunque es difícil de estandarizar, en promedio se imparten 8.8 horas sobre el tema. 90% de los profesores que participan en la enseñanza del VIH/SIDA, no tienen experiencia clínica. Conclusiones: La enseñanza del tema en nuestras escuelas de medicina tiene una prioridad baja, por lo que consideramos que es necesario reforzar y estandarizar los contenidos temáticos sobre VIH/SIDA.

Background: The HIV/AIDS epidemic is a public health problem that has had an impact on all health systems around the world. Mexico is no exception. Although it has been acknowledged that we have a concentrated epidemic, the problem continues to grow. Objective: The objective of this study was to evaluate if the medical school curricula in Mexico included the topic of HIV/AIDS and to assess the level of knowledge medical students have about this disease. Material and Methods: Descriptive study of eight medical schools interviewing pre graduate medical students. Results: Only 15% of the curricula of private medical schools and 21.7% of public schools included the subject of HIV/AIDS. Although it is difficult to standardize this finding, an average of 8.8 hours was assigned to the study of HIV/AIDS. 90% of the professors involved in teaching the topic of HIV/AIDS had no clinical experience in the field. Conclusion: HIV/AIDS is a low priority subject in our medical school curricula. Efforts must be placed to standardize and reinforce this highly important topic.

Alteraciones del desarrollo neurológico en niños nacidos de madres con VIH

El desarrollo neurológico es una parte fundamental en el sano crecimiento de un niño; sin embargo, existen factores que pueden detener su desarrollo y causar deterioro, entre ellos factores infecciosos y socioculturales. Los niños que nacen de una madre infectada con el virus de inmunodeficiencia humana (VIH) en algunos casos adquieren la infección y, en otros, logran escapar de ella. Independientemente de su condición de infectados. Existe un subgrupo de niños que adicionalmente tiene exposición farmacológica in útero a los potentes antirretrovirales usados por las madres infectadas durante la gestación. Se sabe que los niños infectados por el VIH tienen una amplia variedad de trastornos cognoscitivos y motores y, en la medida en que progresa la inmunodeficiencia, el riesgo de tener infecciones oportunistas a nivel cerebral aumenta. Está demostrado que aun los niños no infectados, pero nacidos de madres infectadas, no están exentos de presentar alteraciones cognoscitivas y motoras. Los diferentes problemas neurológicos que enfrentan los niños nacidos de madres infectadas por el VIH, no sólo se explican por la existencia de infecciones en el niño o la madre, sino por la presencia de factores adversos de tipo sociocultural, los cuales pueden afectar el desarrollo cerebral en grados diversos. Ante esta situación es importante que el médico reconozca en forma temprana las alteraciones neurológicas que se presentan, con el propósito de proporcionar un manejo oportuno e incluso para poder prevenir su evolución.

Neurological development is a fundamental part of a child's healthy growth, however, there are factors that can stop his development or that can cause deterioration, amongst them infectious and socio-cultural factors. In some cases, children that are born from a mother infected with the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) acquire the infection and in others they can escape it. Apart from the condition of their infection status, there is a subgroup of children that additionally have in uterus pharmacological exposure to antiretrovirals, used by their mothers during gestation. It is well known that children infected with HIV have a vast variety of cognitive and motor disturbances, and that as the immunodeficiency progresses, they have a risk of opportunistic infections at cerebral level. It has been demonstrated that even children without infection, but born from infected mothers are not exempt from presenting cognitive and motor disturbances. The different neurological problems that children born from HIV+ mothers present are not only explained by the child's or mother's infection, but by the presence of adverse factors, socio-cultural ones, that can affect cerebral development on different levels. Due to this situation it is important to recognize neurological alterations as early as possible with the aim of providing a timely management and even to prevent them.

[Pharmacologic clinical monitoring of serum vancomycin levels in pediatric patients]. / Monitoreo clínico farmacológico de los niveles séricos de vancomicina en pacientes pediátricos.

OBJECTIVE: To analyze the results from the clinical monitoring of serum vancomycin levels among pediatric patients receiving this drug. METHODS: Retrospective study of data from routine monitoring of serum vancomycin concentrations. The study population includes children who received vancomycin for more than 3 days and had peak and trough vancomycin serum concentration documented. The vancomycin concentrations were measured by an immunoassay procedure. RESULTS: We obtained 70 vancomycin concentrations from pediatric patients whose ages ranged from newborn to 13 years old. Mean peak and trough concentrations were 45.7 +/- 8.0 and 18.7 +/- 9.6 micrograms/mL, respectively. We used as a reference normal ranges for Cpmax of 25-40 micrograms/mL and Cpmin of 5-40 micrograms/mL. Only 26.1% of the patients were on Cpmax normal ranges, 47.8% were above the range and 26% under the lower limit. In regards to the Cpmin 17% of the cases were between the accepted limits, 41% above the upper limit and 41% under the normal range. CONCLUSION: Our data suggest that less than a fifth of the patients have serum levels on therapeutic range and almost half of these population had serum levels above the normal range. This might be explained by the type of the population sampled, reflecting a selection bias by detecting levels only among patients with an increased risk for toxicity. Finally, we stress the importance of accurately documenting dose, timing, and renal function in the records of all patients subjected to serum vancomycin determinations.

Cost-effectiveness of strategies to reduce mother-to-child HIV transmission in Mexico, a low-prevalence setting.

OBJECTIVE: To estimate and compare the cost-effectiveness of selected interventions to reduce mother-to-child transmission (MTCT) of HIV in Mexico. METHODS: A spreadsheet-based model was used to examine five scenarios, each estimated using both zidovudine (ZDV) and nevirapine (NVP). Scenarios differ according to coverage, type of voluntary counselling and testing (VCT), restriction to women at higher risk, and whether rapid testing is offered at delivery. Averted adult infections due to VCT are also estimated, as are savings due to averted treatment costs. Results are reported as cost per child infection prevented, net of averted treatment costs (C/CIP). RESULTS: Among 958294 women attending public antenatal clinics, increasing VCT coverage from 4% to 85% is estimated to prevent 102 paediatric and 8 adult infections at a C/CIP of US dollars 42517 using ZDV. In the most restrictive scenario (III), 46 paediatric infections are prevented with a C/CIP of US dollars 39220. Use of NVP increases C/CIP because the reduced drug cost is more than offset by its reduced assumed effectiveness. The cost of detecting infected women (approximately 90% of total) far exceeds treatment costs in such a low-prevalence setting. CONCLUSION: Minimization of MTCT costs in low-prevalence settings should focus on VCT costs rather than drug costs. Even the most cost-effective scenario modelled compares unfavourably with other, highly cost-effective maternal/child interventions that still do not reach many Mexicans. However, it compares favourably against several therapeutic maternal/child interventions available in the public sector's tertiary care hospitals.

A prospective study of surgical site infections in a pediatric hospital in Mexico City.

BACKGROUND: Pediatric surgical site infection (SSI) rates in the United States range from 2.5% to 4.4%. There is little data regarding their risk factors among children. We quantified SSI rates and identified risk factors of SSI in a tertiary care pediatric teaching hospital in Mexico City. METHODS: All neurosurgical, cardiovascular, and general surgical patients who underwent operation between Aug 1, 1998, and Jan 31, 1999, were followed-up daily during hospitalization. On postoperative day 30, a full review of microbiology reports and medical records was performed. Univariate and multivariate analyses were done to identify risk factors. RESULTS: Four hundred twenty-eight of 530 children completed follow-up. The overall SSI rate was 18.7%. Forty percent of SSI were superficial incisional, 21% were deep incisional, and 39% were organ/space infections. For clean, clean-contaminated, contaminated, and dirty procedures, SSI infection rates were 12.4%, 24.4%, 14.3%, and 32.4%, respectively. Open drains (OR = 2.3; 95% CI = 1.3-4.2; P <.005) and surgery that lasted 90 or more minutes (OR = 2.9; 95% CI = 1.6-5.1; P <.001) were associated with infection. CONCLUSIONS: Our rates are greater than comparable reported data among children. Duration of surgery and use of open drains were associated with SSI.

[Methodological considerations for evaluating quality of life]. / Consideraciones metodológicas para evaluar la calidad de vida.

This paper reviews the methods and principles for quality of life assessment. The aging of the population and the improved survival of people with acute and chronic conditions have produced several levels of disability requiring long-term treatment and rehabilitation. In 1948 the World Health Organization defined health as not merely the absence of disease but rather a state of complete physical, mental, and social well being. This term evolved from its conceptual definition to the development of scales to measure the quality of life beyond physical status. Thus, quality of life assessment includes areas such as mental health, social support, and life satisfaction. It is recognized that the expectations, vitality, pain, disability, and personal experiences influence the perception of a person's general health. A composite measurement aimed to quantify health according to physical, mental, and social well being simultaneously would likely include people at clearly different points on the three different continua, but in the midranges of the composite. The multidimensionality problems and the level of subjectivity involved in the assessment of the quality of life require valid and reliable instruments. This paper present an inventory of 126 questionnaires aimed to measure the quality of life for several diseases and populations. A better understanding of the methods to assess the quality of life will allow the incorporation of these instruments in the comprehensive assessment of patients, into clinical trials, and for health services research.

Consideraciones metodológicas para evaluar la calidad de vida / Methodological considerations for evaluating quality of life

This paper reviews the methods and principles for quality of life assessment. The aging of the population and the improved survival of people with acute and chronic conditions have produced several levels of disability requiring long-term treatment and rehabilitation. In 1948 the World Health Organization defined health as not merely the absence of disease but rather a state of complete physical, mental, and social well being. This term evolved from its conceptual definition to the development of scales to measure the quality of life beyond physical status. Thus, quality of life assessment includes areas such as mental health, social support, and life satisfaction. It is recognized that the expectations, vitality, pain, disability, and personal experiences influence the perception of a person's general health. A composite measurement aimed to quantify health according to physical, mental, and social well being simultaneously would likely include people at clearly different points on the three different continua, but in the midranges of the composite. The multidimensionality problems and the level of subjectivity involved in the assessment of the quality of life require valid and reliable instruments. This paper present an inventory of 126 questionnaires aimed to measure the quality of life for several diseases and populations. A better understanding of the methods to assess the quality of life will allow the incorporation of these instruments in the comprehensive assessment of patients, into clinical trials, and for health services research.

[Evaluation of the quality of life]. / Evaluación de la calidad de vida.

This paper reviews the methods and principles for quality of life assessment. The aging of the population and the improved survival of people with acute and chronic conditions have produced several levels of disability requiring long-term treatment and rehabilitation. In 1948 the World Health Organization defined health as not merely the absence of disease but rather a state of complete physical, mental, and social well being. This term evolved from its conceptual definition to the development of scales to measure the quality of life beyond physical status. Thus, quality of life assessment includes areas such as mental health, social support, and life satisfaction. It is recognized that the expectations, vitality, pain, disability, and personal experiences influence the perception of a person's general health. A composite measurement aimed to quantify health according to physical, mental, and social well being simultaneously would likely find people at different points on the three different continua, but in the midranges of the composite. The multidimensionality problems and the level of subjectivity involved in the assessment of the quality of life require valid and reliable instruments. This paper present an inventory of 126 questionnaires aimed to measure the quality of life for several diseases and populations. A better understanding of the methods to assess the quality of life will allow the incorporation of these instruments in the comprehensive assessment of patients, into clinical trials, and for health services research. The English version of this paper is available at: http://www.insp.mx/salud/index.html.