Bismuth-oxide nanoparticles: study in a beam and as deposited.

Bi2O3 is a promising material for solid-oxide fuel cells (SOFC) due to the high ionic conductivity of some phases. The largest value is reached for its δ-phase, but it is normally stable at temperatures too high for SOFC operation, while nanostructured oxide is believed to have more suitable stabilization temperature. However, to manufacture such a material with a controlled chemical composition is a challenging task. In this work, we investigated the fabrication of nanostructured Bi2O3 films formed by deposition of free Bi-oxide nanoparticles created in situ. The particle-production method was based on reactive sputtering and vapour aggregation. Depending on the fabrication conditions, the nanoparticles contained either a combination of Bi-metal and Bi-oxide, or only Bi-oxide. Prior to deposition, the free particles were probed in the beam - by synchrotron-based photoelectron spectroscopy (PES), which allowed assessing their composition "on the-fly". The nanoparticle films obtained after deposition were studied by PES, scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, and electron diffraction. The films' chemical composition, grain dimensions, and crystal structure were probed. Our analysis suggests that our method produced Bi-oxide films in more than one polymorph of Bi2O3.

Radiation damage by extensive local water ionization from two-step electron-transfer-mediated decay of solvated ions.

Biomolecular radiation damage is largely mediated by radicals and low-energy electrons formed by water ionization rather than by direct ionization of biomolecules. It was speculated that such an extensive, localized water ionization can be caused by ultrafast processes following excitation by core-level ionization of hydrated metal ions. In this model, ions relax via a cascade of local Auger-Meitner and, importantly, non-local charge- and energy-transfer processes involving the water environment. Here, we experimentally and theoretically show that, for solvated paradigmatic intermediate-mass Al3+ ions, electronic relaxation involves two sequential solute-solvent electron transfer-mediated decay processes. The electron transfer-mediated decay steps correspond to sequential relaxation from Al5+ to Al3+ accompanied by formation of four ionized water molecules and two low-energy electrons. Such charge multiplication and the generated highly reactive species are expected to initiate cascades of radical reactions.

Time-of-flight photoelectron momentum microscopy with 80-500 MHz photon sources: electron-optical pulse picker or bandpass pre-filter.

The small time gaps of synchrotron radiation in conventional multi-bunch mode (100-500 MHz) or laser-based sources with high pulse rate (∼80 MHz) are prohibitive for time-of-flight (ToF) based photoelectron spectroscopy. Detectors with time resolution in the 100 ps range yield only 20-100 resolved time slices within the small time gap. Here we present two techniques of implementing efficient ToF recording at sources with high repetition rate. A fast electron-optical beam blanking unit with GHz bandwidth, integrated in a photoelectron momentum microscope, allows electron-optical `pulse-picking' with any desired repetition period. Aberration-free momentum distributions have been recorded at reduced pulse periods of 5 MHz (at MAX II) and 1.25 MHz (at BESSY II). The approach is compared with two alternative solutions: a bandpass pre-filter (here a hemispherical analyzer) or a parasitic four-bunch island-orbit pulse train, coexisting with the multi-bunch pattern on the main orbit. Chopping in the time domain or bandpass pre-selection in the energy domain can both enable efficient ToF spectroscopy and photoelectron momentum microscopy at 100-500 MHz synchrotrons, highly repetitive lasers or cavity-enhanced high-harmonic sources. The high photon flux of a UV-laser (80 MHz, <1 meV bandwidth) facilitates momentum microscopy with an energy resolution of 4.2 meV and an analyzed region-of-interest (ROI) down to <800 nm. In this novel approach to `sub-µm-ARPES' the ROI is defined by a small field aperture in an intermediate Gaussian image, regardless of the size of the photon spot.

Note: Soft X-ray transmission polarizer based on ferromagnetic thin films.

A transmission polarizer for producing elliptically polarized soft X-ray radiation from linearly polarized light is presented. The setup is intended for use at synchrotron and free-electron laser beamlines that do not directly offer circularly polarized light for, e.g., X-ray magnetic circular dichroism (XMCD) measurements or holographic imaging. Here, we investigate the degree of ellipticity upon transmission of linearly polarized radiation through a cobalt thin film. The experiment was performed at a photon energy resonant to the Co L3-edge, i.e., 778 eV, and the polarization of the transmitted radiation was determined using a polarization analyzer that measures the directional dependence of photo electrons emitted from a gas target. Elliptically polarized radiation can be created at any absorption edge showing the XMCD effect by using the respective magnetic element.

Ultrafast Charge Transfer Processes Accompanying KLL Auger Decay in Aqueous KCl Solution.

X-ray photoelectron and KLL Auger spectra were measured for the K^{+} and Cl^{-} ions in aqueous KCl solution. While the XPS spectra of these ions have similar structures, both exhibiting only weak satellites near the main line, the Auger spectra differ dramatically. Contrary to the chloride case, a very strong extra peak was found in the Auger spectrum of K^{+} at the low kinetic energy side of the ^{1}D state. Using the equivalent core model and ab initio calculations this spectral feature was assigned to electron transfer processes from solvent water molecules to the solvated cation. The observed charge transfer processes are suggested to play an important role in charge redistribution following single and multiple core-hole creation in atoms and molecules placed into environment.

Near-Edge X-ray Absorption Fine Structure Investigation of the Quasi-One-Dimensional Organic Conductor (TMTSF)2PF6.

We present high-resolution near-edge X-ray absorption fine structure (NEXAFS) measurements at the P L2/3 edges, F K edge, C K edge, and Se M2/3 edges of the quasi-one-dimensional (1D) conductor and superconductor (TMTSF)2PF6. NEXAFS allows probing the donor and acceptor moieties separately; spectra were recorded between room temperature (RT) and 30 K at normal incidence. Spectra taken around RT were also studied as a function of the angle (θ) between the electric field of the X-ray beam and the 1D conducting direction. In contrast with a previous study of the S L2/3-edges spectra in (TMTTF)2AsF6, the Se M2/3 edges of (TMTSF)2PF6 do not exhibit a well-resolved spectrum. Surprisingly, the C K-edge spectra contain three well-defined peaks exhibiting strong and nontrivial θ and temperature dependence. The nature of these peaks as well as those of the F K-edge spectra could be rationalized on the basis of first-principles DFT calculations. Despite the structural similarity, the NEXAFS spectra of (TMTSF)2PF6 and (TMTTF)2AsF6 exhibit important differences. In contrast with the case of (TMTTF)2AsF6, the F K-edge spectra of (TMTSF)2PF6 do not change with temperature despite stronger donor-anion interactions. All these features reveal subtle differences in the electronic structure of the TMTSF and TMTTF families of salts.

Microscopic origin of the charge transfer in single crystals based on thiophene derivatives: A combined NEXAFS and density functional theory approach.

We have investigated the charge transfer mechanism in single crystals of DTBDT-TCNQ and DTBDT-F4TCNQ (where DTBDT is dithieno[2,3-d;2',3'-d'] benzo[1,2-b;4,5-b']dithiophene) using a combination of near-edge X-ray absorption spectroscopy (NEXAFS) and density functional theory calculations (DFT) including final state effects beyond the sudden state approximation. In particular, we find that a description that considers the partial screening of the electron-hole Coulomb correlation on a static level as well as the rearrangement of electronic density shows excellent agreement with experiment and allows to uncover the details of the charge transfer mechanism in DTBDT-TCNQ and DTBDT-F4 TCNQ, as well as a reinterpretation of previous NEXAFS data on pure TCNQ. Finally, we further show that almost the same quality of agreement between theoretical results and experiment is obtained by the much faster Z+1/2 approximation, where the core hole effects are simulated by replacing N or F with atomic number Z with the neighboring atom with atomic number Z+1/2.

Alcohols at the aqueous surface: chain length and isomer effects.

Surface-active organic molecules at the liquid-vapor interface are of great importance in atmospheric science. Therefore, we studied the surface behavior of alcohol isomers with different chain lengths (C4-C6) in aqueous solution with surface- and chemically sensitive X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), which reveals information about the surface structure on a molecular level. Gibbs free energies of adsorption and surface concentrations are determined from the XPS results using a standard Langmuir adsorption isotherm model. The free energies of adsorption, ranging from around -15 to -19 kJ mol(-1) (C4-C6), scale linearly with the number of carbon atoms within the alcohols with ΔGAds per -CH2-≈-2 kJ mol(-1). While for the linear alcohols, surface concentrations lie around 2.4 × 10(14) molecules per cm(2) at the bulk concentrations where monolayers are formed, the studied branched alcohols show lower surface concentrations of around 1.6 × 10(14) molecules per cm(2), both of which are in line with the molecular structure and their orientation at the interface. Interestingly, we find that there is a maximum in the surface enrichment factor for linear alcohols at low concentrations, which is not observed for the shorter branched alcohols. This is interpreted in terms of a cooperative effect, which we suggest to be the result of more effective van der Waals interactions between the linear alcohol alkyl chains at the aqueous surface, making it energetically even more favorable to reside at the liquid-vapor interface.

Donor-anion interactions at the charge localization and charge ordering transitions of (TMTTF)2AsF6 probed by NEXAFS.

High-resolution near-edge X-ray absorption fine structure (NEXAFS) measurements at the As M-edge, F K-edge and S L-edge of the Fabre salt (TMTTF)2AsF6 were performed from room temperature (RT) to 90 K, allowing to reach the charge localization regime below Tρ ≈ 230 K and to cross the charge ordering (CO) transition at TCO ≈ 102 K. The F K-edge and S L-edge spectra exhibit several transitions which have been indexed on the basis of first-principles DFT calculations. Upon cooling from RT significant energy shifts up to +0.8 eV and -0.4 eV were observed in transitions exhibited by the F 1s and S 2p spectra respectively, while the As 3p doublet does not show a significant shift. Opposite energy shifts found in the F 1s and S 2p spectra reflect substantial thermal changes in the electronic environment of F atoms of the anion and S atoms of TMTTF. The changes found around the charge localization crossover suggest an increase of the participation of the S d orbitals in the empty states of TMTTF as well as an increase of the strength of donoranion interactions. A new F 1s pre-edge signal detected upon entry into the CO phase is a clear fingerprint of the symmetry breaking occurring at TCO. We propose that this new transition is caused by a substantial mixing between the HOMO of the AsF6(-) anion and the unoccupied part of the TMTTF HOMO conduction band. Analysis of the whole spectra also suggests that the loss of the inversion symmetry associated with the CO is due to an anion displacement increasing the strength of SF interactions. Our data show unambiguously that anions are not, as previously assumed, innocent spectators during the electronic modifications experienced by the Fabre salts upon cooling. In particular the interpretation of the spectra pointing out a thermally dependent mixing of anion wave functions with those of the TMTTF chains demonstrates for the first time the importance of anion-donor interactions.

Surface behavior of amphiphiles in aqueous solution: a comparison between different pentanol isomers.

Position isomerism is ubiquitous in atmospheric oxidation reactions. Therefore, we have compared surface-active oxygenated amphiphilic isomers (1- and 3-pentanol) at the aqueous surface with surface- and chemically sensitive X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), which reveals information about the surface structure on a molecular level. The experimental data are complemented with molecular dynamics (MD) simulations. A concentration-dependent orientation and solvation of the amphiphiles at the aqueous surface is observed. At bulk concentrations as low as around 100 mM, a monolayer starts to form for both isomers, with the hydroxyl groups pointing towards the bulk water and the alkyl chains pointing towards the vacuum. The monolayer (ML) packing density of 3-pentanol is approx. 70% of the one observed for 1-pentanol, with a molar surface concentration that is approx. 90 times higher than the bulk concentration for both molecules. The molecular area at ML coverage (≈100 mM) was calculated to be around 32 ± 2 Å(2) per molecule for 1-pentanol and around 46 ± 2 Å(2) per molecule for 3-pentanol, which results in a higher surface concentration (molecules per cm(2)) for the linear isomer. In general we conclude therefore that isomers - with comparable surface activities - that have smaller molecular areas will be more abundant at the interface in comparison to isomers with larger molecular areas, which might be of crucial importance for the understanding of key properties of aerosols, such as evaporation and uptake capabilities as well as their reactivity.

Suppression of the molecular ultra-fast dissociation in bromomethane clusters.

We address the influence of clustering on the ultra-fast dissociation of bromomethane. Valence and core photo-electron spectroscopy, partial electron yield absorption, and resonant Auger spectroscopy have been used together with ab initio calculations to investigate the properties of the ultra-fast dissociation. The ratio of ultra-fast dissociation of molecules in clusters as compared to free molecules is determined to be significantly reduced. We propose partial delocalization of the excited electronic state as being responsible for this behavior.

Bond breaking, electron pushing, and proton pulling: active and passive roles in the interaction between aqueous ions and water as manifested in the O 1s Auger decay.

A core-ionized H(2)O molecule in liquid water primarily relaxes through normal Auger decay, leading to a two-hole final state in which both valence holes are localized on the same water molecule. Electronic coupling to the environment, however, allows for alternative decays resembling Intermolecular Coulombic Decay (ICD), producing final states with one of the holes delocalized on a neighboring water molecule. Here we present an experimental study of such minority processes, which adds to our understanding of dynamic interactions of electronically excited H(2)O molecules with their local surrounding in liquid water and aqueous solution. We show that the solvation of metal-halide salts considerably influences these minority decay channels from the water O 1s(-1) state. By breaking water-water bonds, both the metal cations and halide anions are found to reduce the decay into water-water delocalized states, thus having a ″passive″ effect on the Auger spectrum. The halide anions also play an ″active″ role by opening a new ICD-like decay pathway into water-halide delocalized states. The importance of this contribution increases from F(-) to I(-), which we suggest to be caused by a directional polarization of the halide anion toward the core-ionized H(2)O(+) cation in the intermediate state of the Auger process. This increases the electronic overlap between the two centers and makes delocalized decays more probable. We furthermore show that F(-), the smallest and most strongly hydrated of the halides, plays an additional role as proton puller during the core-hole lifetime, resulting in proton dynamics on the low femtosecond time scale. Our results represent a step forward toward a better understanding of how aqueous solutions, when exposed to soft X-rays, channel excess energy. This has implications for several aspects of physical and radiation chemistry, as well as biology.

K-shell x-ray spectroscopy of atomic nitrogen.

Absolute K-shell photoionization cross sections for atomic nitrogen have been obtained from both experiment and state-of-the-art theoretical techniques. Because of the difficulty of creating a target of neutral atomic nitrogen, no high-resolution K-edge spectroscopy measurements have been reported for this important atom. Interplay between theory and experiment enabled identification and characterization of the strong 1s → np resonance features throughout the threshold region. An experimental value of 409.64±0.02 eV was determined for the K-shell binding energy.

Plasmon single- and multi-quantum excitation in free metal clusters as seen by photoelectron spectroscopy.

Plasmons are investigated in free nanoscale Na, Mg, and K metal clusters using synchrotron radiation-based x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. The core levels for which the response from bulk and surface atoms can be resolved are probed over an extended binding energy range to include the plasmon loss features. In all species the features due to fundamental plasmons are identified, and in Na and K also those due to either the first order plasmon overtones or sequential plasmon excitation are observed. These features are discussed in view of earlier results for planar macroscopic samples and free clusters of the same materials.

Charge dependence of solvent-mediated intermolecular Coster-Kronig decay dynamics of aqueous ions.

The 2s and 2p photoelectron spectra have been measured for Na(+), Mg(2+), and Al(3+) ions in aqueous solution. In all cases, the 2s lines are significantly broader than the 2p features, which is attributed to a shorter lifetime of the respective 2s hole. Since intraionic Coster-Kronig decay channels from the (2s)(-1) state are closed for free Na(+), Mg(2+), and Al(3+) ions, this is evidence for an intermolecular Coster-Kronig-like process, reminiscent of intermolecular Coulombic decay (ICD), involving neighboring water solvent molecules. The observed 2s Lorentzian line widths correspond to lifetimes of the (2s)(-1) state of 3.1, 1.5, and 0.98 fs for the solvated Na, Mg, and Al ions, respectively.

A rotatable electron spectrometer for multicoincidence experiments.

We have developed a rotatable hemispherical spectrometer with good energy and angular resolution, which can be positioned with the lens axis arbitrarily within a solid angle of 1 pi. The collection angle of the emitted electrons with respect to the polarization axis of the light is set by means of a three-axes goniometer, operating under vacuum. An important requirement for this setup was the possibility to perform coincidences between the electron analyzed by the spectrometer and one or several other particles, such as ions, electrons, or photons. The lens system and the hemispheres have been designed to accommodate such experimental demands, regarding parameters such as the resolving power, the acceptance angle, or the width of the kinetic energy window which can be recorded for a given pass energy. We have chosen to detect the impact position of the electron at the focal plane of the hemispherical analyzer with a delay line detector and a time-to-digital converter as acquisition card rather than using a conventional charge-coupled device camera.

Sulfur K-edge photofragmentation of ethylene sulfide.

We have investigated the photofragmentation properties of the three-membered ring heterocyclic molecule ethylene sulfide or thiirane, C(2)H(4)S, by time-of-flight mass spectroscopy. Positive ions have been collected as a function of photon energy around the S K ionization threshold. Branching ratios were derived for all detected ions, which are informative of the decay dynamics and photofragmentation patterns of the core-excited species. We present a new assignment of the spectral features around the S K-edge.

Fragmentation properties of three-membered heterocyclic molecules by partial ion yield spectroscopy: C(2)H(4)O and C(2)H(4)S.

We investigated the photofragmentation properties of two three-membered ring heterocyclic molecules, C(2)H(4)O and C(2)H(4)S, by total and partial ion yield spectroscopy. Positive and negative ions have been collected as a function of photon energy around the C 1s and O 1s ionization thresholds in C(2)H(4)O, and around the S 2p and C 1s thresholds in C(2)H(4)S. We underline similarities and differences between these two analogous systems. We present a new assignment of the spectral features around the C K-edge and the sulfur L(2,3) edges in C(2)H(4)S. In both systems, we observe high fragmentation efficiency leading to positive and negative ions when exciting these molecules at resonances involving core-to-Rydberg transitions. The system, with one electron in an orbital far from the ionic core, relaxes preferentially by spectator Auger decay, and the resulting singly charged ion with two valence holes and one electron in an outer diffuse orbital can remain in excited states more susceptible to dissociation. A state-selective fragmentation pattern is analyzed in C(2)H(4)S which leads to direct production of S(2+) following the decay of virtual-orbital excitations to final states above the double-ionization threshold.

A dose dependence study of O(2) adsorbed on large Ar clusters.

An investigation of the behavior of O(2) molecules in and on O(2)-doped large (N approximately 8000) Ar host clusters has been performed by means of core and valence photoelectron spectroscopy. Data from pure O(2) and Ar clusters, as well as from O(2)-doped Ar clusters, are presented. The experimental data together with calculations of the binding energy shifts of oxygen molecular ions in and on the surface of a large host Ar cluster show that the diffusion behavior has a strong dependence on the doping pressure. We conclude that the oxygen molecules in the doped Ar host do not partake in band formation, since there is clear vibrational resolution in the spectral features stemming from screened O(2) (+) ions. This implies that valence photoelectron spectroscopy can be used to determine the geometrical structure of this and certain, similar, cluster systems.

Charge delocalization dynamics of ammonia in different hydrogen bonding environments: free clusters and in liquid water solution.

Valence and core level photoelectron spectra and Auger electron spectra of ammonia in pure clusters have been measured. The Auger electron spectra of gas-phase ammonia, pure ammonia clusters and ammonia in aqueous solution are compared and interpreted via ab initio calculations of the Auger spectrum of the ammonia monomer and dimer. The calculations reveal that the final two-hole valence states can be delocalized over both ammonia molecules. Features at energies pertaining to delocalized states involving one, or more, hydrogen bonding orbitals can be found in both the ammonia cluster Auger electron spectrum and in that of the liquid solvated molecule. The lower Coulombic repulsion between two delocalized valence final state holes gives higher kinetic energy of the Auger electrons which is also observed in the spectra. This decay path--specific to the condensed phase--is responsible for more than 5% of the total cluster Auger intensity. Moreover, this interpretation is also applicable to the solid phase since the same features have been observed, but not assigned, in the Auger spectrum of solid ammonia.