EAACI Molecular Allergology User's Guide.

The availability of allergen molecules ('components') from several protein families has advanced our understanding of immunoglobulin E (IgE)-mediated responses and enabled 'component-resolved diagnosis' (CRD). The European Academy of Allergy and Clinical Immunology (EAACI) Molecular Allergology User's Guide (MAUG) provides comprehensive information on important allergens and describes the diagnostic options using CRD. Part A of the EAACI MAUG introduces allergen molecules, families, composition of extracts, databases, and diagnostic IgE, skin, and basophil tests. Singleplex and multiplex IgE assays with components improve both sensitivity for low-abundance allergens and analytical specificity; IgE to individual allergens can yield information on clinical risks and distinguish cross-reactivity from true primary sensitization. Part B discusses the clinical and molecular aspects of IgE-mediated allergies to foods (including nuts, seeds, legumes, fruits, vegetables, cereal grains, milk, egg, meat, fish, and shellfish), inhalants (pollen, mold spores, mites, and animal dander), and Hymenoptera venom. Diagnostic algorithms and short case histories provide useful information for the clinical workup of allergic individuals targeted for CRD. Part C covers protein families containing ubiquitous, highly cross-reactive panallergens from plant (lipid transfer proteins, polcalcins, PR-10, profilins) and animal sources (lipocalins, parvalbumins, serum albumins, tropomyosins) and explains their diagnostic and clinical utility. Part D lists 100 important allergen molecules. In conclusion, IgE-mediated reactions and allergic diseases, including allergic rhinoconjunctivitis, asthma, food reactions, and insect sting reactions, are discussed from a novel molecular perspective. The EAACI MAUG documents the rapid progression of molecular allergology from basic research to its integration into clinical practice, a quantum leap in the management of allergic patients.

Moving from peanut extract to peanut components: towards validation of component-resolved IgE tests.

BACKGROUND: Replacement of peanut extracts by recombinant peanut components is an important step in allergy serologic testing. Criteria are needed for the unbiased inclusion of patients into a study to validate such a replacement. METHODS: Plasma samples from 64 peanut-positive children (42 reactors, 22 nonreactors in a double-blind, placebo-controlled food challenge) were used to compare IgE reactivity to six recombinant peanut allergens with reactivity to natural peanut proteins extracted at neutral or low pH. We tested the hypothesis that poor extractability of Ara h 9 and other basic allergens at neutral pH leads to under-representation of patients with such sensitization. RESULTS: IgE reactivity to the components did not fully explain IgE reactivity to peanut extract in 5 of 32 reactors with IgE to peanut extract ≤100 kUA /l. IgE reactivity to components was stronger than to the extract in 11 plasma samples, which was largely due to a low Ara h 8 reactivity of the extract. IgE reactivity to Ara h 9 was much lower than reactivity to other basic proteins, some of which bound IgE well in the RAST, but lost IgE reactivity upon immunoblotting. CONCLUSIONS: Conventional peanut extracts are deficient in significant IgE-binding components. The inclusion of patients for a validation study should be based on serology performed with improved peanut reagents to avoid a bias against these under-represented, potentially important allergens. To judge clinical relevance of an allergen, the reagent used for inclusion of patients needs to be efficient in detecting IgE to this component.

IgE-binding epitopes: a reappraisal.

Here, we discuss various questions related to IgE epitopes: What are the technical possibilities and pitfalls, what is currently known, how can we put this information into hypothetical frameworks and the unavoidable question: how useful is this information for patient care or allergenicity prediction? We discuss the information obtained by (i) 3D structures of allergen-antibody complexes; (ii) analysis of allergen analogues; (iii) mimics without obvious structural similarity; (iv) mAbs competing with IgE; (v) repertoire analysis of cloned IgEs, and other developments. Based on limited data, four suggestions are presented in the literature: (i) IgE might be more cross-reactive than IgG; (ii) IgE might be more often directed to immunologically 'uninviting' surfaces; (iii) IgE epitopes may tend to cluster and (iv) IgE paratopes might have a higher intrinsic flexibility. While these are not proven facts, they still can generate hypotheses for future research. The hypothesis is put forward that the IgE repertoire of switched B-cells is less influenced by positive selection, because positive selection might not be able to rescue IgE-switched B cells. While this might be of interest for the discussion about mechanisms leading to allergen-sensitization, we need to be modest in answering the 'clinical relevance' question. Current evidence indicates the IgE-epitope repertoire is too big to make specific IgE epitopes a realistic target for diagnosis, treatment or allergenicity prediction. In-depth analysis of a few selected IgE epitope-peptides or mimitopes derived from allergen-sequences and from random peptide libraries, respectively, might well prove rewarding in relation to diagnosis and prognosis of allergy, particularly food allergy.

Differentiating the cellular and humoral components of neuromuscular blocking agent-induced anaphylactic reactions in patients undergoing anaesthesia.

BACKGROUND: The significance of IgE antibodies to neuromuscular blocking agent (NMBA)-induced anaphylactic reactions during anaesthesia is unclear. We investigated the relevance of IgE to rocuronium using an in vitro technique. METHODS: Serum samples from 61 patients with anaphylactic reactions during anaesthesia were investigated. On the basis of clinical history, allergy to NMBA was considered likely in 48 patients, further assessed using intradermal skin tests for several commonly used NMBAs, including rocuronium, vecuronium, and succinylcholine. To determine the presence of rocuronium IgE in human serum, a rocuronium-human serum albumin (rocHSA) conjugate was coupled to a solid phase and a radioallergosorbent test performed. The biological effects of patient serum NMBA-IgE on histamine release were investigated using in vitro sensitized basophils from healthy blood donors. RESULTS: IgE to rocuronium was found in 23 of 48 serum samples (48%) with NMBA allergy, although only two of these were able to sensitize basophils to release histamine in response to rocHSA. IgE-responsiveness in the basophil test was only observed with conjugated rocHSA and not with unconjugated rocuronium or the other NMBAs evaluated. However, unconjugated rocuronium inhibited the histamine release induced by rocHSA. Correlation between skin-test reactivity to rocuronium and IgE to rocHSA was low (P>0.1). In contrast, striking correlation between IgE to rocuronium and skin-test reactivity to succinylcholine was found (P<0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Our results indicate that NMBA-related anaphylaxis requires not only IgE NMBA reactivity, but also altered cellular reactivity in the patient. The latter may be demonstrable by testing basophils from the patient, a skin test with (steroidal) NMBA, or both.

IgG4 antibodies against rodents in laboratory animal workers do not protect against allergic sensitization.

BACKGROUND: The modified Th2 response, defined as an IgG4 response in the absence of IgE, is suggested to protect against the development of allergic sensitization. However, studies suggesting this protective effect all had a cross-sectional design, making it impossible to study the development of both responses. AIM OF THE STUDY: We aimed to study the dynamics in IgG4 antibodies in relation to allergic sensitization in an occupational cohort of starting laboratory animal workers. Moreover, we studied the relation between exposure, antibody responses, atopy and self reported allergic symptoms. METHODS: A total of 110 starting animal workers were followed for 2 years. IgG4 antibodies against rats and mice were assessed. Workers were tested for allergic sensitization and exposure to animal allergens was estimated. Symptom status was assessed using questionnaires. RESULTS: Rat and mouse specific IgG4 antibodies were present before the development of allergy and did not significantly change over time. Allergic sensitization was related to exposure and atopic status but high levels of IgG4 showed no protective effect. In contrary, workers that developed mouse specific sensitization during follow up had higher levels of mouse specific IgG4. Symptoms were related to allergic sensitization and IgG4 levels did not influence that relationship. CONCLUSIONS: IgG4 antibodies are present before IgE antibodies develop and IgG4 levels are stable over time. In our occupational cohort, the modified Th2 response had no protective effect on development of sensitization or allergic symptoms.

Dynamics in cytokine responses during the development of occupational sensitization to rats.

BACKGROUND: Occupational allergy forms an attractive model to study the development of allergic responses, as in some occupations it has a high incidence and develops quickly. In a cohort of starting laboratory animal workers, we previously found 20% sensitization to animal allergens within 2 years. METHODS: We compared cellular responses of incident laboratory animal workers who developed rat-specific sensitization (cases, n = 18) during 2 years of follow-up to control animal workers matched for atopic status but without sensitization after follow-up (controls, n = 18). Practically, this is a case-control study, nested within the cohort. Rat-specific IgE antibodies were measured in sera, and allergen-specific and nonspecific cytokine responses were measured in whole blood and in isolated peripheral blood mononuclear cells. RESULTS: Self-reported allergic symptoms were related to the presence of rat-specific IgE (P ≤ 0.01). Cases developed a rat allergen-specific interleukin (IL)-4 response during sensitization, while controls did not show an increased IL-4 response (at visit D: 33 vs 5 IL-4 producing cells/10(6) cells, P < 0.001). The IL-4 response was related to the levels of rat-specific IgE in cases (visit D: rho = 0.706, P < 0.001). By contrast, allergen-specific IL-10 and interferon γ (IFNγ) responses as well as nonspecific cytokine responses were comparable between cases and controls. CONCLUSION: This study is the first to show the development of an allergen-specific IL-4 response in adult human subjects during allergen-specific sensitization. This IL-4 response was quantitatively associated with the development of the specific IgE antibodies. Allergen-specific or nonspecific IL-10 and IFNγ responses showed no protective effect on the development of allergic sensitization.

Effects of pets on asthma development up to 8 years of age: the PIAMA study.

BACKGROUND: Recall bias may provide discrepant relationships of pet exposure with sensitization and asthma development. We studied prospectively effects of pets at home on development of sensitization, asthma and respiratory symptoms from birth up to age 8 years. METHODS: Event history analysis was performed on annually registered data of 2951 children, participating in the PIAMA birth cohort study. RESULTS: Children with a cat or dog at home at 3 months of age had a significantly lower prevalence of sensitization to inhalant allergens at age 8, but not of asthma. A cat decreased the risk of house dust mite sensitization at age 8 [odds ratio (OR) = 0.68, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.49-0.95], a dog of pollen sensitization (OR = 0.49, 95% CI: 0.29-0.83). A cat or dog at home did not significantly affect asthma incidence in each subsequent year. From 2 years of age onwards, the incidence of wheeze (OR = 1.52, 95% CI: 1.12-2.05) and a dry cough at night (OR = 1.28, 95% CI: 1.05-1.57) was higher in children with a dog, whereas removal of a dog increased the risk of developing asthma symptoms. Comparing analyses using prospectively and retrospectively collected data on diagnosed asthma showed important recall bias. CONCLUSIONS: Our prospective study shows a protective effect of early presence of pets at home on sensitization to inhalant allergens, but no prevention of asthma development. Furthermore, children with pets had more frequent transient or intermittent asthma symptoms. Parental report of asthma by recall may provide spurious results of these associations.

Immunoglobulin G4: an odd antibody.

Despite its well-known association with IgE-mediated allergy, IgG4 antibodies still have several poorly understood characteristics. IgG4 is a very dynamic antibody: the antibody is involved in a continuous process of half-molecules (i.e. a heavy and attached light-chain) exchange. This process, also referred to as 'Fab-arm exchange', results usually in asymmetric antibodies with two different antigen-combining sites. While these antibodies are hetero- bivalent, they will behave as monovalent antibodies in most situations. Another aspect of IgG4, still poorly understood, is its tendency to mimic IgG rheumatoid factor (RF) activity by interacting with IgG on a solid support. In contrast to conventional RF, which binds via its variable domains, the activity of IgG4 is located in its constant domains. This is potentially a source of false positives in IgG4 antibody assay results. Because regulation of IgG4 production is dependent on help by T-helper type 2 (Th2) cells, the IgG4 response is largely restricted to non-microbial antigens. This Th2-dependency associates the IgG4 and IgE responses. Another typical feature in the immune regulation of IgG4 is its tendency to appear only after prolonged immunization. In the context of IgE-mediated allergy, the appearance of IgG4 antibodies is usually associated with a decrease in symptoms. This is likely to be due, at least in part, to an allergen-blocking effect at the mast cell level and/or at the level of the antigen-presenting cell (preventing IgE-facilitated activation of T cells). In addition, the favourable association reflects the enhanced production of IL-10 and other anti-inflammatory cytokines, which drive the production of IgG4. While in general, IgG4 is being associated with non-activating characteristics, in some situations IgG4 antibodies have an association with pathology. Two striking examples are pemphigoid diseases and sclerosing diseases such as autoimmune pancreatitis. The mechanistic basis for the association of IgG4 with these diseases is still enigmatic. However, the association with sclerosing diseases may reflect an excessive production of anti-inflammatory cytokines triggering an overwhelming expansion of IgG4-producing plasma cells. The bottom line for allergy diagnosis: IgG4 by itself is unlikely to be a cause of allergic symptoms. In general, the presence of allergen-specific IgG4 indicates that anti-inflammatory, tolerance-inducing mechanisms have been activated. The existence of the IgG4 subclass, its up-regulation by anti-inflammatory factors and its own anti-inflammatory characteristics may help the immune system to dampen inappropriate inflammatory reactions.

Repeated measurements of mite and pet allergen levels in house dust over a time period of 8 years.

BACKGROUND: Studies of the association between indoor allergen exposure and the development of allergic diseases have often measured allergen exposure at one point in time. OBJECTIVE: We investigated the variability of house dust mite (Der p 1, Der f 1) and cat (Fel d 1) allergen in Dutch homes over a period of 8 years. METHODS: Data were obtained in the Dutch PIAMA birth cohort study. Dust from the child's mattress, the parents' mattress and the living room floor was collected at four points in time, when the child was 3 months, 4, 6 and 8 years old. Dust samples were analysed for Der p 1, Der f 1 and Fel d 1 by sandwich enzyme immuno assay. RESULTS: Mite allergen concentrations for the child's mattress, the parents' mattress and the living room floor were moderately correlated between time-points. Agreement was better for cat allergen. For Der p 1 and Der f 1 on the child's mattress, the within-home variance was close to or smaller than the between-home variance in most cases. For Fel d 1, the within-home variance was almost always smaller than the between-home variance. Results were similar for allergen levels expressed per gram of dust and allergen levels expressed per square metre of the sampled surface. Variance ratios were smaller when samples were taken at shorter time intervals than at longer time intervals. CONCLUSION: Over a period of 4 years, mite and cat allergens measured in house dust are sufficiently stable to use single measurements with confidence in epidemiological studies. The within-home variance was larger when samples were taken 8 years apart so that over such long periods, repetition of sampling is recommended.

Mouse allergen-specific immunoglobulin G4 and risk of mouse skin test sensitivity.

BACKGROUND: High serum levels of cat-specific IgG and IgG4 are associated with protection against allergic sensitization to cat, but whether this association applies to other animal allergens remains unclear. OBJECTIVE: To determine if high levels of mouse-specific IgG and IgG4 are associated with a decreased risk of mouse skin test sensitivity. METHODS: Two hundred and sixty workers of a mouse facility underwent skin prick testing and completed a questionnaire. Serum levels of mouse-specific IgG and IgG4 were quantified by solid-phase antigen binding assays. Room air samples were collected and airborne Mus m 1 was quantified by ELISA. RESULTS: Forty-nine participants had a positive skin prick test to mouse. Mouse-specific IgG was detected in 219 (84%) participants and IgG4 was detected in 72 (28%) participants. A detectable mouse-specific IgG4 level was associated with an increased risk of mouse skin test sensitivity (odds ratios (OR) 6.4, 95% confidence intervals (CI) 3.3-12.4). Mouse-specific IgG and IgG4 were both positively correlated with mouse allergen exposure (r(s)=0.31, P=0.0001, and r(s)=0.27, P=0.0006, respectively). The odds of skin test sensitivity peaked at moderate levels of IgG4, but decreased at the highest levels of mouse-specific IgG4. In contrast, the odds of skin test sensitivity increased monotonically with IgG levels. CONCLUSIONS: A detectable level of mouse-specific IgG4 is associated with an increased risk of skin test sensitivity to mouse. However, the highest IgG4 levels appear to be associated with an attenuated risk of mouse skin test sensitivity, suggesting that induction of high levels of IgG4 through natural exposure may protect against the development of allergic sensitization.

The analysis and quantification of a clonal B cell response in a hyperimmunized anti-D donor.

Healthy volunteers are hyperimmunized with RhD-positive red cells in order to obtain plasma containing high titres of anti-D immunoglobulin, which is used for the prevention of haemolytic disease of the fetus and newborn. We analysed the anti-D immune response in a donor who had been hyperimmunized for 7 years and who showed declining anti-D titres despite re-immunization. A phage display library representing the complete immunorepertoire and a second library representing the IGHV3 superspecies family genes (IGHV3s) repertoire in the donor were constructed and analysed. A clonal Ig-gene rearrangement was quantified in the peripheral blood by limiting dilution polymerase chain reaction (PCR) All RhD-binding phages from both libraries, except one, had heavy chains with IGH-VDJ rearrangements of the same clonal origin, but with different patterns of somatic mutations and joined with different light chains. Limiting dilution PCR performed on mRNA and genomic DNA showed a frequency of 1 clonal B cell in 2000 IgG1/3-positive B cells. We show the presence of clonally related RhD-specific B cells in a hyperimmunized anti-D donor who had declining anti-D titres and who was unresponsive to re-immunization. Furthermore, we found a high frequency of clonal B cells. These results contribute to the understanding of the immune response against RhD in hyperimmunized anti-D donors.

Mouse allergen-specific immunoglobulin G and immunoglobulin G4 and allergic symptoms in immunoglobulin E-sensitized laboratory animal workers.

BACKGROUND: High levels of allergen-specific IgG have been associated with clinical efficacy in immunotherapy studies, but whether this antibody isotype is associated with clinical tolerance in the setting of environmental exposure remains unclear. OBJECTIVE: To determine if mouse allergen-specific IgG (mIgG) and IgG4 (mIgG4) levels are associated with mouse-related symptoms among IgE-sensitized laboratory workers. METHODS: Fifty-eight workers with either skin test or serologic evidence of IgE-mediated mouse sensitization were studied. Symptom data were obtained by a questionnaire. Serum levels of mouse-specific IgG, IgG4, and IgE were quantified by a solid-phase antigen-binding assay (IgG) and RAST (IgG4 and IgE), and the relationships between mouse-specific serologic responses and mouse-related symptoms were analysed. RESULTS: Twenty-three (39.7%) participants reported mouse-related symptoms. Mouse-specific IgG and IgG4 levels were not associated with mouse-related symptoms among the study population as a whole. Among the 29 (50%) participants with detectable mouse-specific IgE (mIgE), higher mouse-specific IgG and IgG4 levels were associated with a decreased risk of symptoms, after adjusting for mIgE level (odds ratio (OR) 0.3, 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.1-1.4, and OR 0.3, 95% CI: 0.04-2.6, respectively). Higher levels of mIgG and mIgG4 remained associated with a decreased risk of symptoms after additional adjustment for sex and handling of mice (OR 0.1, 95% CI: 0.02-0.7, and OR 0.2, 95% CI: 0.02-2.1, respectively). Higher mIgG : IgE and mIgG4 : IgE ratios were also associated with a decreased risk of symptoms after adjusting for these confounders (OR 0.1, 95% CI: 0.02-0.7, and OR 0.2, 95% CI: 0.02-0.92, respectively). CONCLUSION: Among workers with detectable mIgE, higher mIgG and mIgG4 levels are associated with a decreased risk of mouse-related symptoms. High serum levels of mIgG or mIgG4 may be markers for clinical tolerance among laboratory mouse workers with detectable mIgE, but these findings need to be confirmed in larger, prospective studies.

La mano de DIOS...was the PIAMA intervention study intervened upon?

The PIAMA study evaluates whether application of mite impermeable mattress covers reduces exposure to mite allergen sufficiently to reduce the incidence of asthma and mite allergy. The study started in 1996. Baseline measurements of mite allergen levels were conducted on mattresses of newborn children and their parents, mostly in 1997. Mite allergen levels were surprisingly low in this study compared with previous studies among school children and infants. Mite allergen levels were measured again on mattresses in the PIAMA study in the years 2000/2001 when the children were 4 years old, and in a new study among 6-12 year old school children conducted in the fall of 2001. Data on winter climate were collected as well. In the winters of 1995/1996 and 1996/1997, which preceded and coincided with the PIAMA baseline measurements, temperatures had been extremely low, and precipitation had been extremely low as well. It is likely that these unusual winter weather conditions affected the baseline allergen levels in the PIAMA study so that the effect of the planned intervention (mite impermeable mattress covers) was considerably smaller than it could have been.

An immunoepidemiological approach to asthma: identification of in-vitro T-cell response patterns associated with different wheezing phenotypes in children.

BACKGROUND: Increasing evidence suggests that patterns of T-cell immunity to inhalant allergens in genetically diverse human populations are more heterogeneous than previously assumed, and that covert differences in expression patterns might underlie variations in airway disease phenotypes. We tested this proposition in a community sample of children. METHODS: We analysed data from 172 individuals who had been recruited antenatally to a longitudinal birth cohort study. Of the 194 birth cohort participants, data from the 147 probands (age range 8.6-13.5 years) who consented to blood collection were included along with data from 25 consenting siblings (mean age 11 years [range 7.4-17.4]). We ascertained clinical phenotypes related to asthma and allergy. We measured T-cell responses to allergens and mitogens, together with blood eosinophils and IgE/IgG antibodies, and assessed associations between these indices and clinical phenotypes. FINDINGS: Atopy was associated with allergen-specific T-helper (Th)2 responses dominated by interleukin 4, interleukin 5, interleukin 9, interleukin 13, whereas interleukin 10, tumour necrosis factor alpha, and interferon gamma responses were common to both atopics and non-atopics. The wheal size from skin prick with allergen was positively associated with in-vitro interleukin 5 and interferon gamma responses, and negatively associated with interleukin 10. Asthma, especially in atopics, was strongly associated with eosinophilia/interleukin 5, and bronchial hyper-responsiveness (BHR) was associated with eosinophilia plus polyclonal interferon gamma production. BHR in non-atopics was associated with elevated allergen-specific and polyclonal interleukin 10 production. INTERPRETATION: Parallel immunological and clinical profiling of children identified distinctive immune response patterns related to asthma and wheeze compared with BHR, in atopics non-atopics. Immunological hyper-responsiveness, including within the Th1 cytokine compartment, is identified as a hallmark of BHR. RELEVANCE TO PRACTICE: These findings highlight the heterogeneity of immune response patterns in asthmatic children, including those with seemingly homogeneous Th2-driven atopic asthma. Further elucidation of the covert relationships between wheezing phenotypes and underlying immunophenotypes in this age group will potentially lead to more effective treatments for what is an unexpectedly heterogeneous collection of disease subtypes.

Differential effect of mattress covers on the level of Der p 1 and Der f 1 in dust.

BACKGROUND: Exposure to house dust mite (HDM) allergens can lead to the development of allergic complaints. Mattress covers seem to be an obvious option for lowering allergen exposure in sensitized individuals. Previous studies have shown that Dermatophagoides pteronissinus was the most prevalent HDM species in the Netherlands. OBJECTIVE: In the present study, we investigated the effect of mattress covers on Der p 1 and Der f 1 concentrations in dust samples in three areas in the Netherlands; Groningen, Utrecht and Rotterdam. METHODS: Dust was obtained from mattresses of 277 patients at the beginning of the study and after 12 months of the placebo-controlled intervention. It was analysed for allergen content by immunoassay. The differential effect of the intervention on Der p 1 vs. Der f 1 was analysed in a subgroup with Der p 1+Der f 1>1 microg/g dust (N=161). It was tested whether the intervention caused a significant change in the Der f 1/Der p 1 ratio. RESULTS: At t=0 we found very similar levels of the group 1 allergens of both species. The relatively high prevalence of D. farinae in our study was geographically restricted: the median Der f 1/Der p 1 ratio was 11.1 in the Rotterdam area compared with 1.32 in the Utrecht area and 0.33 in the Groningen area. Analysis of our data showed that the favourable intervention effect found for the combined allergen data (reduction factor=2.9, P<0.001) is essentially due to a favourable effect of the intervention on the Der f 1 levels only (reduction factor=3.6, P<0.001). The effect on the Der p 1 level was remarkably small (reduction factor: 1.2, P=0.48). In the intervention group, the Der f 1/Der p 1 ratio decreased after 12 months by a factor 2.0, whereas in the placebo group it increased (probability of the intervention effect: P<0.005). CONCLUSION: Mite-impermeable covers are more effective in reducing the level of Der f 1 than that of Der p 1.

Risk factors for atopic dermatitis in infants at high risk of allergy: the PIAMA study.

BACKGROUND: It has been suggested that the period immediately after birth is a sensitive period for the development of atopic disease. OBJECTIVE: We investigated whether birth characteristics and environmental factors are associated with the development of atopic dermatitis in the first year of life. METHODS: Seventy-six children with and 228 without atopic dermatitis, all children of mothers with respiratory allergy or asthma (PIAMA birth cohort study) were included in the study. Atopic dermatitis was defined as a positive history of an itchy skin condition with at least two of the following characteristics: visible dermatitis, history of outer arms/leg involvement, or general dry skin. Multiple logistic regression analysis was performed to study the independent effects of various risk factors. RESULTS: A birth weight >/=4000 g compared to 3000-4000 g was a significant risk factor for atopic dermatitis (odds ratio (OR)=2.4; 95% CI: 1.1-5.1) as was day care attendance (OR=2.9; 95% CI: 1.5-5.9). Exclusive breastfeeding in the first 3 months was negatively associated with atopic dermatitis (OR=0.6; 95% CI: 0.3-1.2), especially with visible dermatitis (OR=0.4; 95% CI: 0.2-1.0). Gender, gestational age, the presence of siblings or pets, and parental smoking were not significantly associated with atopic dermatitis. CONCLUSION: This study shows that a high birth weight and day care attendance increase the risk of atopic dermatitis in the first year of life, while exclusive breastfeeding is a protective factor when dermatitis is found on inspection.

Histamine-releasing factors, a heterogeneous group of different activities.

Histamine-releasing factor or HRF is a collective term used for a heterogeneous group of factors with different modes of action. The current review is focussed on IgE-dependent HRF that require the presence of certain types of IgE (designated IgE+) to induce histamine release. IgE+ might be a structurally different IgE molecule, or, alternatively, autoreactive IgE. A subgroup of IgE-dependent HRF does not bind to IgE, such as cloned HRF p23. This factor turned out to be a basophil-priming cytokine. Alternatively IgE-dependent HRF might be an autoallergen. Several groups demonstrated IgE antibodies to human proteins. However, not all IgE autoallergen-containing extracts induce histamine release of appropriately sensitized basophils. In culture supernatants of human mononuclear cells an autoallergenic activity (Agmn) is found, but no binding to IgE+ was found yet. Agmn might be an autoallergen, since it is cross-reactive with a grass pollen allergen in the stripped basophil assay. IgE-dependent HRF and IgE+ may play a role in the late allergic reaction (LAR). However, IgE+ responsiveness to Agmn (IgEmn+) was not required for a bronchial LAR. IgEmn+ is associated with chronic allergic disease, since the prevalence of IgEmn+ is high in the serum of severe asthmatics and atopic dermatitis patients. Our hypothesis is that exogenous allergens induce IgE antibodies cross-reactive with an endogenous protein. During a LAR, these endogenous proteins are released and the subsequent IgE-mediated reaction prolongs and aggravates the allergic and/or asthmatic symptoms. In conclusion, HRF is a confusing term since it is used for different activities. It might be better to avoid this terminology on and just describe the activity of the factors. Autoallergenic activity is likely to explain most, if not all, IgE-dependent activity.