Elastohydrodynamic propulsion of a filament magnetically driven at both ends.

The elastohydrodynamic interaction between an elastic filament and its surrounding fluid was exploited to develop the first microswimmers. These flexible microswimmers are typically actuated magnetically at one end and their propulsion behavior is relatively well understood. In this work, we move beyond the traditional single-end actuation setup and explore the propulsion characteristics of an elastic filament driven by magnetic torques at both ends. We report the emergence of new modes of propulsion behaviors in different physical regimes, depending on the balance of elastic and viscous forces as well as the arrangement of the magnetic moments at the filament ends. In particular, under the same magnetic actuation, a filament driven at both ends can propel either forward or backward depending on its relative stiffness. Moreover, this new backward propulsion mode can generate a magnitude of propulsion that is unattainable by the traditional single-end actuation setup. We characterize these new propulsion behaviors and provide some physical insights into how they emerge from the complex interplay between viscous and elastic forces and magnetic actuation in various configurations. Taken together, these findings could guide the development of soft microrobots with enhanced propulsion performance and maneuverability for future biomedical applications.

Eye-mounting goggles to bridge the gap between benchtop experiments and in vivo robotic eye surgery.

A variety of robot-assisted surgical systems have been proposed to improve the precision of eye surgery. Evaluation of these systems has typically relied on benchtop experiments with artificial or enucleated eyes. However, this does not properly account for the types of head motion that are common among patients undergoing eye surgery, which a clinical robotic system will encounter. In vivo experiments are clinically realistic, but they are risky and thus require the robotic system to be at a sufficiently mature state of development. In this paper, we describe a low-cost device that enables an artificial or enucleated eye to be mounted to standard swim goggles worn by a human volunteer to enable more realistic evaluation of eye-surgery robots after benchtop studies and prior to in vivo studies. The mounted eye can rotate about its center, with a rotational stiffness matching that of an anesthetized patient's eye. We describe surgeon feedback and technical analyses to verify that various aspects of the design are sufficient for simulating a patient's eye during surgery.

Characterizing Detection Thresholds for Six Orthogonal Modes of Vibrotactile Display Via Stylus With Precision Grasp.

In this paper, we characterize the detection thresholds in six orthogonal modes of vibrotactile haptic display via stylus, including three orthogonal force directions and three orthogonal torque directions at the haptic interaction point. A psychophysical study is performed to determine detection thresholds over the frequency range 20-250 Hz, for six distinct styluses. Analysis of variance is used to test the hypothesis that force signals, as well as torque signals, applied in different directions have different detection thresholds. We find that people are less sensitive to force signals parallel to the stylus than to those orthogonal to the stylus at low frequencies, and far more sensitive to torque signals about the stylus than to those orthogonal to the stylus. Optimization techniques are used to determine four independent two-parameter models to describe the frequency-dependent thresholds for each of the orthogonal force and torque modes for a stylus that is approximately radially symmetric; six independent models are required if the stylus is not well approximated as radially symmetric. Finally, we provide a means to estimate the model parameters given stylus parameters, for a range of styluses, and to estimate the coupling between orthogonal modes.

Dexterous magnetic manipulation of conductive non-magnetic objects.

Dexterous magnetic manipulation of ferromagnetic objects is well established, with three to six degrees of freedom possible depending on object geometry1. There are objects for which non-contact dexterous manipulation is desirable that do not contain an appreciable amount of ferromagnetic material but do contain electrically conductive material. Time-varying magnetic fields generate eddy currents in conductive materials2-4, with resulting forces and torques due to the interaction of the eddy currents with the magnetic field. This phenomenon has previously been used to induce drag to reduce the motion of objects as they pass through a static field5-8, or to apply force on an object in a single direction using a dynamic field9-11, but has not been used to perform the type of dexterous manipulation of conductive objects that has been demonstrated with ferromagnetic objects. Here we show that manipulation, with six degrees of freedom, of conductive objects is possible by using multiple rotating magnetic dipole fields. Using dimensional analysis12, combined with multiphysics numerical simulations and experimental verification, we characterize the forces and torques generated on a conductive sphere in a rotating magnetic dipole field. With the resulting model, we perform dexterous manipulation in simulations and physical experiments.

Estimating the Pose of a Guinea-pig Cochlea Without Medical Imaging.

HYPOTHESIS: The pose (i.e., position and orientation) of a guinea-pig cochlea can be accurately estimated using externally observable features, without requiring computed-tomography (CT) scans. BACKGROUND: Guinea pigs are frequently used in otologic research as animal models of cochlear-implant surgery. In robot-assisted surgical insertion of cochlear-implant electrode arrays, knowing the cochlea pose is required. A preoperative CT scan of the guinea-pig anatomy can be labeled and registered to the surgical system, however, this process can be expensive and time consuming. METHODS: Anatomical features from both sides of 11 guinea-pig CT scans were labeled and registered, forming sets. Using a groupwise point-set registration algorithm, errors in cochlea position and modiolar-axis orientation were estimated for 11 iterations of registration where each feature set was used as a hold-out set containing a reduced number of features that could all be touched by a motion-tracking probe intraoperatively. The method was validated on 2000 simulated guinea-pig cochleae and six physical guinea-pig-skull cochleae. RESULTS: Validation on simulated cochleae resulted in cochlea-position estimates with a maximum error of 0.43 mm and modiolar-axis orientation estimates with a maximum error of 8.1 degrees for 96.7% of cochleae. Physical validation resulted in cochlea-position estimates with a maximum error of 0.80 mm and modiolar-axis orientation estimates with a maximum error of 12.4 degrees. CONCLUSIONS: This work enables researchers conducting robot-assisted surgical insertions of cochlear-implant electrode arrays using a guinea-pig animal model to estimate the pose of a guinea-pig cochlea by locating six externally observable features on the guinea pig, without the need for CT scans.

Magnetic Steering of Robotically Inserted Lateral-wall Cochlear-implant Electrode Arrays Reduces Forces on the Basilar Membrane In Vitro.

HYPOTHESIS: Undesirable forces applied to the basilar membrane during surgical insertion of lateral-wall cochlear-implant electrode arrays (EAs) can be reduced via robotic insertion with magnetic steering of the EA tip. BACKGROUND: Robotic insertion of magnetically steered lateral-wall EAs has been shown to reduce insertion forces in vitro and in cadavers. No previous study of robot-assisted insertion has considered force on the basilar membrane. METHODS: Insertions were executed in an open-channel scala-tympani phantom. A force plate, representing the basilar membrane, covered the channel to measure forces in the direction of the basilar membrane. An electromagnetic source generated a magnetic field to steer investigational EAs with permanent magnets at their tips, while a robot performed the insertion. RESULTS: When magnetic steering was sufficient to pull the tip of the EA off of the lateral wall of the channel, it resulted in at least a 62% reduction of force on the phantom basilar membrane at insertion depths beyond 14.4 mm (p < 0.05), and these beneficial effects were maintained beyond approximately the same depth, even with 10 degrees of error in the estimation of the modiolar axis of the cochlea. When magnetic steering was not sufficient to pull the EA tip off of the lateral wall, a significant difference from the no-magnetic-steering case was not found. CONCLUSIONS: This in vitro study suggests that magnetic steering of robotically inserted lateral-wall cochlear-implant EAs, given sufficient steering magnitude, can reduce forces on the basilar membrane in the first basilar turn compared with robotic insertion without magnetic steering.

Vibrotactile Display of Patterned Surface Textures With Kinesthetic Haptic Devices Using Balanced Impulses.

Kinesthetic haptic devices are designed primarily to display quasistatic and low-bandwidth forces and moments. Existing methods for vibrotactile display sometimes introduce haptic and/or audio artifacts. In this article, we propose a method to display vibrotactile stimulus signals of moderate to high frequency (20-500 Hz) using kinesthetic haptic devices with a standard 1 kHz haptic update rate. Our method combines symmetric square-wave signals whose periods are even multiples of the haptic update period with asymmetric square-wave signals whose periods are odd multiples of the haptic update period, while ensuring that the positive and negative impulses are balanced in both cases, and utilizing the just noticeable difference in frequency discrimination to avoid the need to display other frequencies. For frequencies at which the above method is insufficient, corresponding to a small band near 400 Hz for a 1 kHz update rate, we utilize a signal-mixing method. Our complete method is then extended to render haptic gratings by measuring scanning velocity, converting the local spatial frequency to its equivalent instantaneous temporal frequency, and displaying a single full-period vibration event. In a series of human-subject studies, we showed that our proposed method is preferred over existing methods for vibrotactile display of signals with relatively high-frequency content.

Thermal Model of an Omnimagnet for Performance Assessment and Temperature Control.

An Omnimagnet is an electromagnetic device that enables remote magnetic manipulation of devices such as medical implants and microrobots. It is composed of three orthogonal nested solenoids with a ferromagnetic core at the center. Electrical current within the solenoids leads to undesired temperature increase within the Omnimagnet. If the temperature exceeds the melting point of the wire insulation, device failure may occur. Thus, a study of heat transfer within an Omnimagnet is a necessity, particularly to maximize the performance of the device. A transient heat transfer model that incorporates all three heat transfer modes is proposed and experimentally validated with an average normalized root-mean-square error of less than 4% (data normalized by temperature in degree celsius). The transient model is not computationally expensive and is applicable to Omnimagnets with different structures. The code is applied to calculate the maximum safe operational time at a fixed input current or the maximum safe input current for a fixed time interval. The maximum safe operational time and maximum safe input current depend on size and structure of the Omnimagnet and the lowest critical temperature of all the Omnimagnet materials. A parametric study shows that increasing convective heat transfer during cooling, and during heating with low input currents, is an effective method to increase the maximum operational time of the Omnimagnet. The thermal model is also presented in a state-space equation format that can be used in a real-time Kalman filter current controller to avoid device failure due to excessive heating.

Translational and Rotational Arrow Cues (TRAC) Navigation Method for Manual Alignment Tasks.

Many tasks in image-guided surgery require a clinician to manually position an instrument in space, with respect to a patient, with five or six degrees of freedom (DOF). Displaying the current and desired pose of the object on a 2D display such as a computer monitor is straightforward. However, providing guidance to accurately and rapidly navigate the object in 5-DOF or 6-DOF is challenging. Guidance is typically accomplished by showing distinct orthogonal viewpoints of the workspace, requiring simultaneous alignment in all views. Although such methods are commonly used, they can be quite unintuitive, and it can take a long time to perform an accurate 5-DOF or 6-DOF alignment task. In this article, we describe a method of visually communicating navigation instructions using translational and rotational arrow cues (TRAC) defined in an object-centric frame, while displaying a single principal view that approximates the human's egocentric view of the physical object. The target pose of the object is provided but typically is used only for the initial gross alignment. During the accurate-alignment stage, the user follows the unambiguous arrow commands. In a series of human-subject studies, we show that the TRAC method outperforms two common orthogonal-view methods-the triplanar display, and a sight-alignment method that closely approximates the Acrobot Navigation System-in terms of time to complete 5-DOF and 6-DOF navigation tasks. We also find that subjects can achieve 1 mm and 1° accuracy using the TRAC method with a median completion time of less than 20 seconds.

Magnetically Steered Robotic Insertion of Cochlear-Implant Electrode Arrays: System Integration and First-In-Cadaver Results.

Cochlear-implant electrode arrays (EAs) must be inserted accurately and precisely to avoid damaging the delicate anatomical structures of the inner ear. It has previously been shown on the benchtop that using magnetic fields to steer magnet-tipped EAs during insertion reduces insertion forces, which correlate with insertion errors and damage to internal cochlear structures. This paper presents several advancements toward the goal of deploying magnetic steering of cochlear-implant EAs in the operating room. In particular, we integrate image guidance with patient-specific insertion vectors, we incorporate a new nonmagnetic insertion tool, and we use an electromagnetic source, which provides programmable control over the generated field. The electromagnet is safer than prior permanent-magnet approaches in two ways: it eliminates motion of the field source relative to the patient's head and creates a field-free source in the power-off state. Using this system, we demonstrate system feasibility by magnetically steering EAs into a cadaver cochlea for the first time. We show that magnetic steering decreases average insertion forces, in comparison to manual insertions and to image-guided robotic insertions alone.

Optimizing the Magnetic Dipole-Field Source for Magnetically Guided Cochlear-Implant Electrode-Array Insertions.

Magnetic guidance of cochlear-implant electrode arrays during insertion has been demonstrated in vitro to reduce insertion forces, which is believed to be correlated to a reduction in trauma. In those prior studies, the magnetic dipole-field source (MDS) was configured to travel on a path that would be coincident with the cochlea's modiolar axis, which was an unnecessary constraint that was useful to demonstrate feasibility. In this paper, we determine the optimal configuration (size and location) of a spherical-permanent-magnet MDS needed to accomplish guided insertions with a 100 mT field strength required at the cochlea, and we provide a methodology to perform such an optimization more generally. Based on computed-tomography scans of 30 human subjects, the MDS should be lateral-to and slightly anterior-to the cochlea with an approximate radius (mean and standard deviation across subjects) of 64 mm and 4.5 mm, respectively. We compare these results to the modiolar configuration and find that the volume of the MDS can be reduced by a factor of five with a 43% reduction in its radius by moving it to the optimal location. We conservatively estimate that the magnetic forces generated by the optimal configuration are two orders of magnitude below the threshold needed to puncture the basilar membrane. Although subject-specific optimal configurations are computed in this paper, a one-size-fits-all version with a radius of approximately 75 mm is more robust to registration error and likely more practical. Finally, we explain how to translate the results obtained to an electromagnetic MDS.

An In-Vitro Insertion-Force Study of Magnetically Guided Lateral-Wall Cochlear-Implant Electrode Arrays.

HYPOTHESIS: Insertion forces can be reduced by magnetically guiding the tip of lateral-wall cochlear-implant electrode arrays during insertion via both cochleostomy and the round window. BACKGROUND: Steerable electrode arrays have the potential to minimize intracochlear trauma by reducing the severity of contact between the electrode-array tip and the cochlear wall. However, steerable electrode arrays typically have increased stiffness associated with the steering mechanism. In addition, steerable electrode arrays are typically designed to curve in the direction of the basal turn, which is not ideal for round-window insertions, as the cochlear hook's curvature is in the opposite direction. Lateral-wall electrode arrays can be modified to include magnets at their tips, augmenting their superior flexibility with a steering mechanism. By applying magnetic torque to the tip, an electrode array can be navigated through the cochlear hook and the basal turn. METHODS: Automated insertions of candidate electrode arrays are conducted into a scala-tympani phantom with either a cochleostomy or round-window opening. The phantom is mounted on a multi-degree-of-freedom force sensor. An external magnet applies the necessary magnetic bending torque to the magnetic tip of a modified clinical electrode array, coordinated with the insertion, with the goal of directing the tip down the lumen. Steering of the electrode array is verified through a camera. RESULTS: Statistical t-test results indicate that magnetic guidance does reduce insertion forces by as much as 50% with certain electrode-array models. Direct tip contact with the medial wall through the cochlear hook and the lateral wall of the basal turn is completely eliminated. The magnetic field required to accomplish these insertions varied from 77 to 225 mT based on the volume of the magnet at the tip of the electrode array. Alteration of the tip to accommodate a tiny magnet is minimal and does not change the insertion characteristic of the electrode array unless the tip shape is altered. CONCLUSION: Magnetic guidance can eliminate direct tip contact with the medial walls through the cochlear hook and the lateral walls of the basal turn. Insertion-force reduction will vary based on the electrode-array model, but is statistically significant for all models tested. Successful steering of lateral-wall electrode arrays is accomplished while maintaining its superior flexibility.

Generating Arm-Swing Trajectories in Real-Time Using a Data-Driven Model for Gait Rehabilitation With Self-Selected Speed.

Gait rehabilitation is often focused on the legs and overlooks the role of the upper limbs. However, a variety of studies have demonstrated the importance of proper arm swing both during healthy walking and during rehabilitation. In this paper, we describe a method for generating proper arm-swing trajectories in real time using only measurements of the angular velocity of a person's thighs, to be used during gait rehabilitation with self-selected walking speed. A data-driven linear time-invariant transfer function is developed, using frequency-response methods, which captures the frequency-dependent magnitude and phase relationship between the thighs' angular velocities and the arm angles (measured at the shoulder, in the sagittal plane), using a data set of 30 healthy adult subjects. We show that the proposed method generates smooth trajectories for both healthy individuals and patients with mild to moderate Parkinson disease. The proposed method can be used in future robotic devices that integrate arm swing in gait rehabilitation of patients with walking impairments to improve the efficacy of their rehabilitation.

Guiding Elastic Rods With a Robot-Manipulated Magnet for Medical Applications.

Magnet-tipped, elastic rods can be steered by an external magnetic field to perform surgical tasks. Such rods could be useful for a range of new medical applications because they do not require either pull wires or other bulky mechanisms that are problematic in small anatomical regions. However, current magnetic rod steering systems are large and expensive. Here, we describe a method to guide a rod using a robot-manipulated magnet located near a patient. We solve for rod deflections by combining permanent-magnet models with a Kirchhoff elastic rod model and use a resolved-rate approach to compute trajectories. Experiments show that three-dimensional trajectories can be executed accurately without feedback and that the system's redundancy can be exploited to avoid obstacles.

Comprehensive quantitative investigation of arm swing during walking at various speed and surface slope conditions.

Previous studies have shown that inclusion of arm swing in gait rehabilitation leads to more effective walking recovery in patients with walking impairments. However, little is known about the correct arm-swing trajectories to be used in gait rehabilitation given the fact that changes in walking conditions affect arm-swing patterns. In this paper we present a comprehensive look at the effects of a variety of conditions on arm-swing patterns during walking. The results describe the effects of surface slope, walking speed, and physical characteristics on arm-swing patterns in healthy individuals. We propose data-driven mathematical models to describe arm-swing trajectories. Thirty individuals (fifteen females and fifteen males) with a wide range of height (1.58-1.91m) and body mass (49-98kg), participated in our study. Based on their self-selected walking speed, each participant performed walking trials with four speeds on five surface slopes while their whole-body kinematics were recorded. Statistical analysis showed that walking speed, surface slope, and height were the major factors influencing arm swing during locomotion. The results demonstrate that data-driven models can successfully describe arm-swing trajectories for normal gait under varying walking conditions. The findings also provide insight into the behavior of the elbow during walking.

Parametric design of tri-axial nested Helmholtz coils.

This paper provides an optimal parametric design for tri-axial nested Helmholtz coils, which are used to generate a uniform magnetic field with controllable magnitude and direction. Circular and square coils, both with square cross section, are considered. Practical considerations such as wire selection, wire-wrapping efficiency, wire bending radius, choice of power supply, and inductance and time response are included. Using the equations provided, a designer can quickly create an optimal set of custom coils to generate a specified field magnitude in the uniform-field region while maintaining specified accessibility to the central workspace. An example case study is included.

Kinesthetic Force Feedback and Belt Control for the Treadport Locomotion Interface.

This paper describes an improved control system for the Treadport immersive locomotion interface, with results that generalize to any treadmill that utilizes an actuated tether to enable self-selected walking speed. A new belt controller is implemented to regulate the user's position; when combined with the user's own volition, this controller also enables the user to naturally self-select their walking speed as they would when walking over ground. A new kinesthetic-force-feedback controller is designed for the tether that applies forces to the user's torso. This new controller is derived based on maintaining the user's sense of balance during belt acceleration, rather than by rendering an inertial force as was done in our prior work. Based on the results of a human-subjects study, the improvements in both controllers significantly contribute to an improved perception of realistic walking on the Treadport. The improved control system uses intuitive dynamic-system and anatomical parameters and requires no ad hoc gain tuning. The control system simply requires three measurements to be made for a given user: the user's mass, the user's height, and the height of the tether attachment point on the user's torso.

Investigation of the Treadport for gait rehabilitation of spinal cord injury.

The goal of this study is to compare the effect of training by the University of Utah's Treadport versus a conventional treadmill on gait improvement of spinal-cord-injury (SCI) patients. Four incomplete SCI subjects who had reached a rehabilitation plateau were selected to have training first on the treadmill and then the Treadport. Spatiotemporal and gait parameters were utilized to make a comparison between the two training conditions. Overall, the results demonstrated statically significant improvements in most of the spatiotemporal as well as some of the gait parameters during training with the Treadport relative to the traditional treadmill.

Single-camera focus-based localization of intraocular devices.

Future retinal therapies will be partially automated in order to increase the positioning accuracy of surgical tools. Proposed untethered microrobotic approaches that achieve this increased accuracy require localization information for their control. Since the environment of the human eye is externally observable, images can be used to localize the microrobots. In this paper, the common methods of ophthalmoscopy assuming a single stationary camera are examined and compared with respect to their imaging and localizing properties on a schematic model of the human eye. The first algorithm for wide-angle intraocular localization based on indirect ophthalmoscopy is presented, and its sensitivity with respect to uncertainties in the parameters of individual eyes is estimated. A calibration technique to account for these uncertainties is proposed, and the localization algorithm is validated with experiments in a model eye.

Microrobots for minimally invasive medicine.

Microrobots have the potential to revolutionize many aspects of medicine. These untethered, wirelessly controlled and powered devices will make existing therapeutic and diagnostic procedures less invasive and will enable new procedures never before possible. The aim of this review is threefold: first, to provide a comprehensive survey of the technological state of the art in medical microrobots; second, to explore the potential impact of medical microrobots and inspire future research in this field; and third, to provide a collection of valuable information and engineering tools for the design of medical microrobots.