Cost consequence analysis of adding semaglutide to treatment regimen for patients with Type II diabetes in Saudi Arabia.

Introduction: Semaglutide, a Glucagon-like Peptide-1 Receptor Agonist (GLP-1 RA), is often prescribed for managing type 2 diabetes, particularly in cases unresponsive to other hypoglycemic agents. Despite its popularity, the real-world efficacy and cost-effectiveness of Semaglutide relative to other treatments remain understudied. Objective: This study aimed to examine the direct medical cost and consequences of adding Semaglutide to the treatment regimen for patients with type 2 diabetes in Saudi Arabia. Methods: We conducted a single-center, retrospective review of Electronic Medical Records (EMRs) for adults with type 2 diabetes. Patients who had been on Semaglutide for at least three months were matched with those receiving alternative hypoglycemic therapies. Exclusions were made for patients with cancer, incomplete EMRs, or lacking prescription data. Investigated outcomes included changes in HbA1C levels and weight, and the direct costs comprised medications, clinic visits, and emergency care. Baseline adjustments were made through inverse probability treatment weighting, and uncertainty was assessed via bootstrapping with 10,000 replications. Results: Out of 350 patients meeting the criteria, 116 were on Semaglutide. Predominantly females (62%), the cohort had an average age of 60 and a disease duration of 22 years. The difference in HbA1C (%) reductions between Semaglutide and non-Semaglutide users over 3,6, and 12 months were 0.154 (95% CI: -0.452-0.483), -0.031(95% CI: -0.754-0.239), -0.16(95% CI: -1.425-0.840), respectively. Semaglutide users did experience modest weight reductions ranging from 0.42 kg to 1.16 kg. The annual additional direct medical cost for Semaglutide was USD 4,086.82 (95% CI: $3,710.85 - $4,294.99). Conclusion: Although Semaglutide induced modest weight reductions, it did not offer significant advantages in lowering HbA1C levels compared to other hypoglycemic treatments. These findings suggest the need for further research involving larger and more diverse cohorts to corroborate these findings.

Toll-like Receptor 9 Gene in the Development of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus in the Saudi Arabian Population.

Diabetes mellitus is a complex disease with a wide range of manifestations. Diabetes, notably type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), is becoming more common in Saudi Arabia as a result of obesity and an aging population. T2DM is classified as a noncommunicable disease, and its incidence in the Saudi population continues to grow as a consequence of socioeconomic changes. Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are innate immune receptors that mediate the inflammatory response in diabetes mellitus. Previous studies have documented the relationship between different SNPs in the TLR9 gene in different forms of diabetes. As a result, the purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between rs187084, rs352140, and rs5743836 SNPs in the TLR9 gene among T2DM patients in the Saudi population. This was a case-control study that included 100 T2DM cases and 100 control subjects. The three SNPs were identified in the study population (n = 200) using polymerase chain reaction (PCR), restriction enzymes for rs352140, and Sanger sequencing for rs187084 and rs5783836. Next, statistical analyses were performed using various software to determine the association between the SNPs and T2DM. rs187084 and rs5743836 were associated with an increased risk of T2DM development. rs187084 and rs5743836 allelic frequencies were associated with a 3.2 times increased risk of T2DM development (p < 0.05). DBP was associated with T2DM (p = 0.02). rs187084 was associated with TC and HDLc; rs352140 was associated with DBP, HbA1c, and HDLc; rs5743836 was associated with waist (p < 0.05). The CGT haplotype was strongly associated with T2DM (p < 0.003). Gene-gene interaction, graphical presentation, and dendrogram showed the strong association with T2DM patients (p < 0.05). This study concluded that rs187084 and rs5743836 were strongly associated with T2DM in Saudi Arabian patients. This study provides further evidence that SNPs in the TLR9 gene play a significant role in T2DM development in a Saudi community.

Echocardiographic Changes in Saudi Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus.

Background and Objectives: Cardiovascular disease is one of the leading causes of morbidity and mortality among the diabetic population. Given the high prevalence of diabetes mellitus (DM) in Saudi Arabia and the high prevalence of heart failure in the diabetic population, this study assesses the echocardiographic changes in Saudi patients with type 2 DM (T2DM) compared with healthy controls. Materials and Methods: In this retrospective case-control study, 80 patients with diabetes (45 males, age: 58.78 ± 10.2 years) were compared with 80 controls (45 males, age: 58.6 ± 10 years) who underwent an echocardiographic study in the King Saud University Medical City, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Results: There were no significant differences between the patients with diabetes and controls in terms of aortic root diameter, left atrium diameter, posterior wall, interventricular wall thickness, left ventricular diameters and ejection fraction. However, diastolic dysfunction was statistically significantly higher in the diabetic group than in the control group (p < 0.05). Conclusions: This is the first case-control study in Saudi Arabia that assesses echocardiographic parameters in T2DM patients. DM is an independent risk factor for diastolic dysfunction regardless of its association with hypertension and dyslipidemia.

Prevalence of QT prolongation and its risk factors in patients with type 2 diabetes.

BACKGROUND: QT prolongation increases cardiovascular mortality in diabetes. The risk factors for QT prolongation vary across different studies. There is no data on the QT prolongation in patients with diabetes from the Arab region, where diabetes is highly prevalent. Here we aimed to assess the prevalence of QT prolongation and its associated risk factors in patients with type 2 diabetes from Saudi Arabia. METHOD: This was a retrospective, cross-sectional, hospital-based file review study. Data were collected from the medical records of patients with type 2 diabetes aged above 14 years and underwent ECG examination, and laboratory investigations were done within one month of ECG. RESULTS: The study included 782 patients with a prevalence of QTc prolongation of 13%. Patients with prolonged QTc interval were characterized by older age, higher BMI, longer diabetes duration, lower total cholesterol and LDL-C, and more diabetic nephropathy, hypertension, and CVD cases. They were also more in insulin treatment, antihypertensive medications, loop diuretics, and potassium-sparring diuretics. Logistic regression analysis revealed the odds of prolonged QTc interval increased significantly with CVD (OR = 1.761, 95% CI:1.021-3.036, p = 0.042), and usage of loop diuretics (OR = 2.245, 95% CI:1.023-4.923, p = 0.044) after adjusting for age, gender, and duration of diabetes. CONCLUSION: The risk factors associated with QTc prolongation in patients with type 2 diabetes are CVD, and loop diuretics. Age, BMI, and diabetes duration were more in people with QTc prolongation, whereas total cholesterol and LDL-C levels were lower. More patients had diabetic nephropathy, hypertension, and CVD with prolonged QTc.

Evaluation of carbohydrate counting knowledge among individuals with type 1 diabetes mellitus in Saudi Arabia: a cross-sectional study.

Introduction: Carbohydrate counting (CC) is an important nutritional strategy to improve glycaemic outcomes among patients with diabetes. Few studies have investigated CC knowledge among individuals with type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) in Saudi Arabia. Therefore, we aimed to evaluate CC knowledge in Saudi adults with T1DM. Study design and methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted between December 2021 and February 2022, including 224 patients with T1DM from the University Diabetes Center, Riyadh. Adults aged ≥18 years, diagnosed with T1DM for >1 year, and residing in Saudi Arabia were included. CC knowledge was assessed using a previously well-studied tool (AdultCarbQuiz), which was translated into Arabic and tested for validity by a group of dieticians. Descriptive statistics were used for data analysis, and bivariate and regression analyses were conducted. Results: The AdultCarbQuiz questionnaire-Arabic version had good validity and reliability (Cronbach's α: 0.87). The CC method was used by 54% of the participants. The mean CC knowledge score was 23.01±7.31. A significant negative linear relationship between the participants' CC knowledge scores, and age and glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c) levels, was revealed by simple regression analysis. Furthermore, significant independent variables related to CC knowledge scores were CC use, HbA1c levels, being taught about CC (>5 times), insulin pump usage and DM duration (≤15 years). Conclusions: Approximately half of the patients used the CC method. The mean CC knowledge scores were better in patients who used the CC method, were more frequently taught about CC, were treated using an insulin pump, and had a shorter DM duration than their counterparts. Therefore, designing and implementing a well-structured nutrition education programme tailored to individuals with diabetes is crucial to provide them with up-to-date dietary information, as well as the necessary knowledge and skills, to improve their outcomes and manage their condition.

Association Between Type B Insulin Resistance Syndrome and Mixed Connective Tissue Disease in an Arab African Man.

Type B insulin resistance syndrome (TBIRS) has not been previously reported in Arab populations. We report a case of TBIRS in an Arab patient with mixed connective tissue disease (MCTD). Investigations revealed a clinical condition marked by positive anti-insulin receptor and ribonucleoprotein antibodies. The patient presented with severe hyperglycemia, weight loss, arthralgia, and acanthosis nigricans. He was managed successfully with an intensive pulsed combination regimen of cyclophosphamide and plasmapheresis augmented with high doses of prednisolone, which normalized his blood sugar levels without insulin therapy. MCTD was controlled by hydroxychloroquine. During the course of his treatment, the patient developed diabetic ketoacidosis secondary to the gluteal abscess, leukopenia, and recurrent hypoglycemia. Here, we showed that immunosuppressive agents and plasmapheresis can induce remission of TBIRS and can be used to normalize the blood sugar levels of Arab patients with this condition.

Characteristics of Patients with Charcot's Arthropathy and its Complications in the Saudi Diabetic Population: A Cross-Sectional Study.

BACKGROUND: Charcot's arthropathy (CA) is a destructive rare complication of diabetes, and its diagnosis remains challenging for foot specialists and surgeons. We aimed to assess the clinical presentation and characteristics of CA and the frequencies of its various types. METHODS: This cross-sectional study was conducted from January 1, 2007, to December 31, 2016, and included 149 adults with diabetes diagnosed as having CA. Cases of CA were classified based on the Brodsky anatomical classification into five types according to location and involved joints. RESULTS: The mean ± SD age of the studied cohort was 56.7 ± 11 years, with a mean ± SD diabetes duration of 21.2 ± 7.0 years. The CA cohort had poorly controlled diabetes and a high rate of neuropathy and retinopathy. The most frequent type of CA was type 4, with multiple regions involved at a rate of 56.4%, followed by type 1, with midfoot involvement at 34.5%. A total of 47.7% of the patients had bilateral CA. Complications affected 220 limbs, of which 67.7% had foot ulceration. With respect to foot deformity, hammertoe affected all of the patients; hallux valgus, 59.5%; and flatfoot, 21.8%. CONCLUSIONS: There is a high rate of bilateral CA, mainly type 4, which could be attributed to cultural habits in Saudi Arabia, including footwear. This finding warrants increasing awareness of the importance of maintaining proper footwear to avoid such complications. Implementation of preventive measures for CA is urgently needed.

Serum Sex Hormone Binding Globulin (SHBG) Relation with Different Components of Metabolic Syndrome in Men with Type 2 Diabetes.

Sex hormone binding globulin (SHBG) is demonstrated to be decreased in subjects with metabolic syndrome (MetS). The aim of the present study was to investigate the association of SHBG in relation to MetS components among men with type 2 diabetes (T2D). This cross-sectional study was carried out among 429 Saudi T2D male patients aged >30 years. Metabolic syndrome was defined using International Diabetes Federation (IDF) criteria. Fasting blood glucose (FBG), HbA1c, albumin, and lipid parameter were measured. Gonadal hormones, namely total testosterone, luteinizing hormone (LH), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), and SHBG were determined using ELISA. The SHBG levels of the MetS group was significantly lower than non-MetS group 47.25±31.03 nmol/l vs. 56.55±37.84 nmol/l; p=0.013. As the MetS score increases, SHBG and HDL levels decrease while weight, BMI, waist circumference, SBP, DBP, FBG, HbA1c, TC, and TG levels increase. SHBG correlated with age, BMI, TG, HDL, TT, free testosterone, and bio-available testosterone. This is the first study that provides detailed analyses of SHBG with MetS components in male diabetic subjects. The mean serum SHBG levels gradually declined with the addition of MetS components in T2D men. TT, free testosterone, and bio-available testosterone remained independently associated with SHBG by multivariable regression analysis.

All-cause mortality and its risk factors among type 1 and type 2 diabetes mellitus in a country facing diabetes epidemic.

AIM: Diabetes mellitus is associated with an increased risk of premature death mainly secondary to macrovascular and microvascular complications. Mortality data from the Eastern Mediterranean region known for its high diabetes prevalence are lacking. We aimed to assess all-cause mortality and its predictors using large cohort from the Saudi National Diabetes Registry (SNDR). METHODS: The study population comprised of 40,827 individuals with type 1 and type 2 diabetes mellitus aged ⩾25years registered in SNDR between January 2007 and December 2013. All patients were followed until death, according to the date of death or reaching 100years of age or end of the study. Death was verified from the national civil affairs database. The general population during the study period was used as a reference for standardized mortality ratio (SMR) calculation. RESULTS: With a total of 152,038 person-years of follow up, 2582 patients were deceased giving all-cause mortality rate of 16.98 per 1000 person-years and SMR (95% CI) of 1.93 (1.86-2.00). Mortality rates were higher among men and increased with age, while SMR attenuated with increasing age. The independent predictors for all-cause mortality were longer diabetes duration, presence of macrovascular complications, nephropathy, retinopathy, hypertension, male gender and older age, while morbid obesity and the presence of hyperlipidemia were associated with reduced risk. CONCLUSIONS: The unexpectedly low mortality rate in this population would be associated with higher number of deaths as a result of the high prevalence of diabetes and its complications. Reducing the prevalence of diabetes and its complications would reduce the risk of mortality.

Health care services provided to type 1 and type 2 diabetic patients in Saudi Arabia.

OBJECTIVES: To assess health care services provided to type 1 and type 2 diabetic patients and diabetes health care expenditure in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA). METHODS: This study was part of a nationwide, household, population based cross-sectional survey conducted at the University Diabetes Center, College of Medicine, King Saud University, Riyadh, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia between January 2007 and December 2009 covering 13 administrative regions of the Kingdom. Using patients' interview questionnaires, health care services data were collected by trained staff. RESULTS: A total of 5,983 diabetic patients were chosen to assess health care services and expenditure. Approximately 92.2% of health services were governmental and the remaining 7.8% were in private services. The mean annual number of visits to physicians was 6.5±3.9 and laboratories was 5.1±3.9. Diabetic patients required one admission every 3 years with a mean admission duration of 13.3±28.3 days. General practitioners managed 85.9% of diabetic cases alone, or shared with internists and/or endocrinologists. Health care expenditure was governmental in 90% of cases, while it was personal in 7.7% or based on insurance payment in 2.3%. CONCLUSION: Health services and its expenditure provided to diabetic citizens in Saudi Arabia are mainly governmental. Empowerment of the role of both the private sector and health insurance system is badly needed, aside from implementing proper management guidelines to deliver good services at different levels.

Epidemiology of abnormal glucose metabolism in a country facing its epidemic: SAUDI-DM study.

BACKGROUND: Saudi Arabia is a community thrilled by sudden social and economical changes, leading to a sharp increase in the prevalence of abnormal glucose metabolism. Age-specific diabetes and impaired fasting glucose prevalence is the focus of this study with the expected risk factors. METHODS: A nationwide, household, randomized, population based cohort of 18 034 participants aged ≥30 years was selected to test for abnormal glucose metabolism using fasting plasma glucose (FPG) according to American Diabetes Association (ADA) criteria. RESULTS: The prevalence of diabetes was 25.4% with 40.3% being unaware of their disease, while impaired fasting glucose (IFG) affected 25.5% of the total sample. IFG to diabetes ratio was one in this study, decreasing with age and increasing with body weight. Age ≥45 years, hypertension, history of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM), and high triglycerides are the strongest risk factors in diabetic patients, while history of GDM, dyslipidemia, obesity, and high triglycerides are the most significant risk factors in IFG participants. CONCLUSIONS: Abnormal glucose metabolism has reached an epidemic level in this society, where half of adults and older are affected. Risk factors are behind this epidemic and the quick shift from IFG to diabetes in this society.

The Saudi Abnormal Glucose Metabolism and Diabetes Impact Study (SAUDI-DM).

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Saudi Arabia underwent opulence-driven socio-cultural and lifestyle changes leading to soaring rates of diabetes mellitus. This study exposes the epidemiology of abnormal glucose metabolism namely: diabetes and impaired fasting glucose (IFG) in 13 administrative regions of Saudi Arabia. DESIGN AND SETTINGS: This is a nationwide, household, population-based cross-sectional study that was conducted through primary health care centers during the period 2007-2009. PATIENTS AND METHODS: A nationwide, household, population-based cohort of 53370 participants aged 0-100 years adjusted to be compatible with population census was interviewed and anthropometric measures were collected. Fasting blood sample was used to screen for IFG and diabetes. RESULTS: The overall prevalence of abnormal glucose metabolism was 34.5%, which included 22.6% patients with IFG, 11.9% patients with diabetes, and 6.2% patients who unaware of their disease. Diabetes prevalence was 40.2% for subjects aged >=45 years and 25.4% for those aged >=30 years that decreased to 11.9% when the full age spectrum was considered. Type 1 diabetes prevalence was 0. 8%, contributing only to 6.6% of the total population of patients with diabetes. The top 5 regions with the highest abnormal glucose metabolism prevalence were Makkah (43.4%), Aljouf (41.7%), Eastern region (37.16%), Madinah (35.4%), and Qassim (33.7%). Urbanization, age, and obesity were behind the wide variations in diabetes and IFG prevalence in the 13 regions. CONCLUSION: Abnormal glucose metabolism has reached an epidemic state in Saudi Arabia, where one-third of the population is affected and half of diabetic cases were unaware of their disease. This observation warrants an urgent strategy for launching diabetes primary prevention and screening programs.