Fecal microbiota transplantation of patients with anorexia nervosa did not alter flexible behavior in rats.

OBJECTIVE: Patients with anorexia nervosa (AN) are often anxious, display inflexible behavior and disrupted reward processing. Emerging evidence suggests that gut dysbiosis in patients contributes to the disease phenotype and progression. METHODS: In a preclinical study, we explored whether AN-derived microbiota impacts cognitive flexibility, anxiety, and dopamine signaling using fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT) in tyrosine hydroxylase-cre rats. We performed probabilistic reversal learning task (PRLT) at the baseline, after antibiotic treatment, and following FMT from patients with AN and controls. We assessed flexible behavior, task engagement, and ventral tegmental area (VTA) dopamine signaling during and in the absence of reward. Furthermore, anxiety-like behavior was evaluated with open field (OF) and elevated plus maze (EPM) tests. RESULTS: Neither antibiotic-induced dysbiosis nor AN FMT led to significant alterations in the number of reversals or lever press strategies after reinforced or nonreinforced lever presses (win and lose-stay) in the PRLT. However, the number of initiated trials decreased after antibiotic treatment while remaining unchanged after FMT. No significant differences were observed in VTA dopamine activity, anxiety measures in the OF and EPM tests. Microbiome analysis revealed limited overlap between the microbiota of the donors and recipients. DISCUSSION: No evidence was found that the microbiota of patients compared to controls, nor a depleted microbiome impacts cognitive flexibility. Nonetheless, antibiotic-induced dysbiosis resulted in reduced task engagement during the PRLT. The relatively low efficiency of the FMT is a limitation of our study and highlights the need for improved protocols to draw robust conclusions in future studies. PUBLIC SIGNIFICANCE: While our study did not reveal direct impacts of AN-associated gut microbiota on cognitive flexibility or anxiety behaviors in our preclinical model, we observed a decrease in task engagement after antibiotic-induced dysbiosis, underscoring that the presence of a gut microbiome matters. Our findings underscore the need for further refinement in FMT protocols to better elucidate the complex interplay between gut microbiota and behaviors characteristic of anorexia nervosa.

Nucleus accumbens D1- and D2-expressing neurons control the balance between feeding and activity-mediated energy expenditure.

Accumulating evidence points to dysregulations of the Nucleus Accumbens (NAc) in eating disorders (ED), however its precise contribution to ED symptomatic dimensions remains unclear. Using chemogenetic manipulations in male mice, we found that activity of dopamine D1 receptor-expressing neurons of the NAc core subregion facilitated effort for a food reward as well as voluntary exercise, but decreased food intake, while D2-expressing neurons have opposite effects. These effects are congruent with D2-neurons being more active than D1-neurons during feeding while it is the opposite during running. Chronic manipulations of each subpopulations had limited effects on energy balance. However, repeated activation of D1-neurons combined with inhibition of D2-neurons biased behavior toward activity-related energy expenditure, whilst the opposite manipulations favored energy intake. Strikingly, concomitant activation of D1-neurons and inhibition of D2-neurons precipitated weight loss in anorexia models. These results suggest that dysregulations of NAc dopaminoceptive neurons might be at the core of EDs.

Intranasal administration of olanzapine has beneficial outcome in a rat activity-based anorexia model.

The atypical antipsychotic drug olanzapine is prescribed despite clinical studies on olanzapine treatment showing mixed results on treatment efficacy in anorexia nervosa. We investigated the effect of systemic and intranasal administration of olanzapine in the activity-based anorexia (ABA) model. Rats were habituated to a running wheel and exposed to the ABA model while treated with olanzapine. During ABA rats had 1.5 h of daily access to food and ad libitum access to a running wheel for seven consecutive days. Olanzapine was administered via an osmotic minipump (1, 2.75, and 7.5 mg/kg) or intranasally 2 h before dark onset (1 and 2.75 mg/kg). We monitored body weight, food intake, wheel revolutions, body temperature, and adipose tissue. We found 2.75 and 7.5 mg/kg systemic olanzapine decreased wheel revolutions during ABA. Relative adipose tissue mass was increased in the 7.5 mg/kg olanzapine-treated group while body weight, food intake, and body temperature were unaltered by the systemic olanzapine. 1 and 2.75 mg/kg intranasal olanzapine diminished wheel revolutions and body temperature during the first 2 h after administration. The intranasal olanzapine-treated rats had a higher body weight at the end of ABA. We find that olanzapine has beneficial outcomes in the ABA via two administration routes by acting mainly on running wheel activity. Intranasal olanzapine showed a rapid effect in the first hours after administration in reducing locomotor activity. We recommend further exploring intranasal administration of olanzapine in anorectic patients to assist them in coping with restlessness.

Engagement of the brain orexin system in activity-based anorexia behaviour in mice.

While excessive physical activity is common amongst anorexia nervosa (AN) patients, contributing to their low body weight, little is known about the underlying biology and effective treatments targeting the hyperactivity are lacking. Given the role of orexin in arousal, physical activity and energy expenditure, we sought to investigate i) the extent to which orexin neurons are activated during severe anorectic state in the activity-based anorexia (ABA) mouse model, and ii) if the dual orexin receptor antagonist suvorexant can reduce physical activity during ABA. The Fos-TRAP2 technique enable us to visually capture active neurons (Fos expressing) during severe anorectic state in the ABA mouse model, and by immunohistochemistry, determine the extent to which these active neurons are orexin positive. In addition, suvorexant was administered peripherally to ABA mice and running activity was monitored. We found that a large population of orexin neurons in the hypothalamus are activated by ABA and that peripheral administration of suvorexant decreases food anticipatory activity in these mice. We conclude that orexin may be a suitable target to treat hyperactivity in AN and recommend further studies to examine the efficacy of suvorexant in aiding AN patients to control their drive for hyperactivity.

Inhibition of ventral tegmental area projections to the nucleus accumbens shell increases premature responding in the five-choice serial reaction time task in rats.

Exaggerated impulsivity and attentional impairments are hallmarks of certain disorders of behavioural control such as attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), schizophrenia and addiction. Pharmacological studies have implicated elevated dopamine (DA) levels in the nucleus accumbens shell (NAcbS) in impulsive actions. The NAcbS receives its DA input from the ventral tegmental area (VTA), and we have previously shown that optogenetic activation of VTA-NAcbS projections impaired impulse control and attention in the five-choice serial reaction time task (5-CSRTT) in rats. To better understand the role of VTA-NAcbS projections in impulsivity and attention, the present study sought to inhibit this projection using optogenetics. We demonstrate that inhibiting VTA-NAcbS efferents during the last seconds of the inter-trial interval (i.e. immediately before presentation of the instructive cue) induces exaggerated impulsive action, in the absence of changes in attentional or motivational parameters in the 5-CSRTT. Together with our earlier observations, this suggests that impulse control in the 5-CSRTT is tightly controlled by VTA-NAcbS activity, with deviations in both directions resulting in increased impulsivity.

Common Genetic Variation and Age of Onset of Anorexia Nervosa.

Background: Genetics and biology may influence the age of onset of anorexia nervosa (AN). The aims of this study were to determine whether common genetic variation contributes to age of onset of AN and to investigate the genetic associations between age of onset of AN and age at menarche. Methods: A secondary analysis of the Psychiatric Genomics Consortium genome-wide association study (GWAS) of AN was performed, which included 9335 cases and 31,981 screened controls, all from European ancestries. We conducted GWASs of age of onset, early-onset AN (<13 years), and typical-onset AN, and genetic correlation, genetic risk score, and Mendelian randomization analyses. Results: Two loci were genome-wide significant in the typical-onset AN GWAS. Heritability estimates (single nucleotide polymorphism-h 2) were 0.01-0.04 for age of onset, 0.16-0.25 for early-onset AN, and 0.17-0.25 for typical-onset AN. Early- and typical-onset AN showed distinct genetic correlation patterns with putative risk factors for AN. Specifically, early-onset AN was significantly genetically correlated with younger age at menarche, and typical-onset AN was significantly negatively genetically correlated with anthropometric traits. Genetic risk scores for age of onset and early-onset AN estimated from independent GWASs significantly predicted age of onset. Mendelian randomization analysis suggested a causal link between younger age at menarche and early-onset AN. Conclusions: Our results provide evidence consistent with a common variant genetic basis for age of onset and implicate biological pathways regulating menarche and reproduction.

Stress-driven potentiation of lateral hypothalamic synapses onto ventral tegmental area dopamine neurons causes increased consumption of palatable food.

Stress can cause overconsumption of palatable high caloric food. Despite the important role of stress eating in obesity and (binge) eating disorders, its underlying neural mechanisms remain unclear. Here we demonstrate in mice that stress alters lateral hypothalamic area (LHA) control over the ventral tegmental area (VTA), thereby promoting overconsumption of palatable food. Specifically, we show that glutamatergic LHA neurons projecting to the VTA are activated by social stress, after which their synapses onto dopamine neurons are potentiated via AMPA receptor subunit alterations. We find that stress-driven strengthening of these specific synapses increases LHA control over dopamine output in key target areas like the prefrontal cortex. Finally, we demonstrate that while inducing LHA-VTA glutamatergic potentiation increases palatable fat intake, reducing stress-driven potentiation of this connection prevents such stress eating. Overall, this study provides insights in the neural circuit adaptations caused by stress that drive overconsumption of palatable food.

Studying Synaptic Connectivity and Strength with Optogenetics and Patch-Clamp Electrophysiology.

Over the last two decades the combination of brain slice patch clamp electrophysiology with optogenetic stimulation has proven to be a powerful approach to analyze the architecture of neural circuits and (experience-dependent) synaptic plasticity in such networks. Using this combination of methods, originally termed channelrhodopsin-assisted circuit mapping (CRACM), a multitude of measures of synaptic functioning can be taken. The current review discusses their rationale, current applications in the field, and their associated caveats. Specifically, the review addresses: (1) How to assess the presence of synaptic connections, both in terms of ionotropic versus metabotropic receptor signaling, and in terms of mono- versus polysynaptic connectivity. (2) How to acquire and interpret measures for synaptic strength and function, like AMPAR/NMDAR, AMPAR rectification, paired-pulse ratio (PPR), coefficient of variance and input-specific quantal sizes. We also address how synaptic modulation by G protein-coupled receptors can be studied with pharmacological approaches and advanced technology. (3) Finally, we elaborate on advances on the use of dual color optogenetics in concurrent investigation of multiple synaptic pathways. Overall, with this review we seek to provide practical insights into the methods used to study neural circuits and synapses, by combining optogenetics and patch-clamp electrophysiology.

Characterizing and TRAPing a Social Stress-Activated Neuronal Ensemble in the Ventral Tegmental Area.

Social stress is a major contributor to neuropsychiatric issues such as depression, substance abuse and eating disorders. The ventral tegmental area (VTA) is involved in the effects of stress on cognitive and emotional processes perturbed in these disorders. However, the VTA is a cellularly heterogeneous brain area and it remains unclear which of its neuronal populations make up the social stress-sensitive ensemble. The current study characterizes the molecular, topographical and functional properties of VTA social stress-activated cells. First, we used immunohistochemical analysis of Fos protein, a marker of recent increased neuronal activity, to show that acute social stress activates a mainly neuronal ensemble in the VTA (VTASocial stress neurons). Topographical analysis showed that this ensemble, which comprises ∼11% of all VTA neurons, occurs across VTA subregions. Further analysis showed that approximately half of the VTASocial stress neurons express the dopamine synthesis rate-limiting enzyme tyrosine hydroxylase (TH). In a minority of cases this occurred with coexpression of vesicular glutamate transporter 2 (Vglut2). Also part of the ensemble were VTA cells expressing just Vglut2 without TH, and cells expressing the vesicular GABA transporter (VGAT) without TH. Next, using targeted recombination in active populations (TRAP2), we showed that VTASocial stress neurons can be permanently tagged and made tractable for future functional investigations. Using a combination of TRAP2 and patch-clamp electrophysiology we demonstrate that VTASocial stress neurons exhibit higher excitability than their non-TRAPed neighbor cells. Overall, this study shows that acute social stress activates an ensemble of neurons throughout the VTA, comprising distinct molecular identities, and with specific electrophysiological features. It also identifies TRAP2 as a tool to make this ensemble tractable for future functional studies.

The effects of polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) administration on the microbiome-gut-brain axis in adolescents with anorexia nervosa (the MiGBAN study): study protocol for a longitudinal, double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Anorexia nervosa (AN) is a severe psychiatric disease that often takes a chronic course due to insufficient treatment options. Emerging evidence on the gut-brain axis offers the opportunity to find innovative treatments for patients with psychiatric disorders. The gut microbiome of patients with AN shows profound alterations that do not completely disappear after weight rehabilitation. In previous studies, the administration of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) resulted in effects that might be beneficial in the treatment of AN, affecting the microbiome, body weight and executive functions. Therefore, the MiGBAN study aims to examine the effects of a nutritional supplementation with PUFA on the gut microbiome and body mass index (BMI) in patients with AN. METHODS: This is a longitudinal, double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Within 2 years, 60 adolescent patients aged 12 to 19 years with AN will receive either PUFA or placebo for 6 months additional to treatment as usual. After 1 year, the long-term effect of PUFA on the gut microbiome and consecutively on BMI will be determined. Secondary outcomes include improvement of gastrointestinal symptoms, eating disorder psychopathology, and comorbidities. Additionally, the interaction of the gut microbiome with the brain (microbiome-gut-brain axis) will be studied by conducting MRI measurements to assess functional and morphological changes and neuropsychological assessments to describe cognitive functioning. Anti-inflammatory effects of PUFA in AN will be examined via serum inflammation and gut permeability markers. Our hypothesis is that PUFA administration will have positive effects on the gut microbiota and thus the treatment of AN by leading to a faster weight gain and a reduction of gastrointestinal problems and eating disorder psychopathology. DISCUSSION: Due to previously heterogeneous results, a systematic and longitudinal investigation of the microbiome-gut-brain axis in AN is essential. The current trial aims to further analyse this promising research field to identify new, effective therapeutic tools that could help improve the treatment and quality of life of patients. If this trial is successful and PUFA supplementation contributes to beneficial microbiome changes and a better treatment outcome, their administration would be a readily applicable additional component of multimodal AN treatment. TRIAL REGISTRATION: German Clinical Trials Register DRKS00017130 . Registered on 12 November 2019.

Increased elasticity of sucrose demand during hyperdopaminergic states in rats.

RATIONALE: Deficits in cost-benefit decision-making are a core feature of several psychiatric disorders, including substance addiction, eating disorders and bipolar disorder. Mesocorticolimbic dopamine signalling has been implicated in various processes related to cognition and reward, but its precise role in reward valuation and cost-benefit trade-off decisions remains incompletely understood. OBJECTIVES: We assessed the role of mesocorticolimbic dopamine signalling in the relationship between price and consumption of sucrose, to better understand its role in cost-benefit decisions. METHODS: Dopamine neurons in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) were chemogenetically activated in rats, and a behavioural economics approach was used to quantify the relationship between price and consumption of sucrose. Motivation for sucrose was also assessed under a progressive ratio (PR) schedule of reinforcement. To further gauge the role of dopamine in cost-benefit trade-offs for sucrose, the effects of treatment with D-amphetamine and the dopamine receptor antagonist alpha-flupentixol were assessed. RESULTS: Chemogenetic activation of VTA dopamine neurons increased demand elasticity, while responding for sucrose under a PR schedule of reinforcement was augmented upon stimulation of VTA dopamine neurons. Treatment with amphetamine partially replicated the effects of chemogenetic dopamine neuron activation, whereas treatment with alpha-flupentixol reduced free consumption of sucrose and had mixed effects on demand elasticity. CONCLUSIONS: Stimulation of mesocorticolimbic dopaminergic neurotransmission altered cost-benefit trade-offs in a complex manner. It reduced the essential value of palatable food, increased incentive motivation and left free consumption unaltered. Together, these findings imply that mesocorticolimbic dopamine signalling differentially influences distinct components of cost expenditure processes aimed at obtaining rewards.

On the interrelation between alcohol addiction-like behaviors in rats.

RATIONALE: Alcohol use disorder (AUD) is a complex, heterogeneous disorder that only occurs in a minority of alcohol users. Various behavioral constructs, including excessive intake, habit formation, motivation for alcohol and resistance to punishment have been implicated in AUD, but their interrelatedness is unclear. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was therefore to explore the relation between these AUD-associated behavioral constructs in rats. We hypothesised that a subpopulation of animals could be identified that, based on these measures, display consistent AUD-like behavior. METHODS: Lister Hooded rats (n = 47) were characterised for alcohol consumption, habit formation, motivation for alcohol and quinine-adulterated alcohol consumption. The interrelation between these measures was evaluated through correlation and cluster analyses. In addition, addiction severity scores were computed using different combinations of the behavioral measures, to assess the consistency of the AUD-like subpopulation. RESULTS: We found that the data was uniformly distributed, as there was no significant tendency of the behavioral measures to cluster in the dataset. On the basis of multiple ranked addiction severity scores, five animals (~ 11%) were classified as displaying AUD-like behavior. The composition of the remaining subpopulation of animals with the highest addiction severity score (9 rats; ~ 19%) varied, depending on the combination of measures included. CONCLUSION: Consistent AUD-like behavior was detected in a small proportion of alcohol drinking rats. Alcohol consumption, habit formation, motivation for alcohol and punishment resistance contribute in varying degrees to the AUD-like phenotype across the population. These findings emphasise the importance of considering the heterogeneity of AUD-like behavior.

TRAPing Ghrelin-Activated Circuits: A Novel Tool to Identify, Target and Control Hormone-Responsive Populations in TRAP2 Mice.

The availability of Cre-based mouse lines for visualizing and targeting populations of hormone-sensitive cells has helped identify the neural circuitry driving hormone effects. However, these mice have limitations and may not even be available. For instance, the development of the first ghrelin receptor (Ghsr)-IRES-Cre model paved the way for using the Cre-lox system to identify and selectively manipulate ghrelin-responsive populations. The insertion of the IRES-Cre cassette, however, interfered with Ghsr expression, resulting in defective GHSR signaling and a pronounced phenotype in the homozygotes. As an alternative strategy to target ghrelin-responsive cells, we hereby utilize TRAP2 (targeted recombination in active populations) mice in which it is possible to gain genetic access to ghrelin-activated populations. In TRAP2 mice crossed with a reporter strain, we visualized ghrelin-activated cells and found, as expected, much activation in the arcuate nucleus (Arc). We then stimulated this population using a chemogenetic approach and found that this was sufficient to induce an orexigenic response of similar magnitude to that induced by peripheral ghrelin injection. The stimulation of this population also impacted food choice. Thus, the TRAPing of hormone-activated neurons (here exemplified by ghrelin-activated pathways) provides a complimentary/alternative technique to visualize, access and control discrete pathways, linking hormone action to circuit function.

Characterization of orexin input to dopamine neurons of the ventral tegmental area projecting to the medial prefrontal cortex and shell of nucleus accumbens.

Orexin neurons are involved in homeostatic regulatory processes, including arousal and feeding, and provide a major input from the hypothalamus to the ventral tegmental area (VTA) of the midbrain. VTA neurons are a central hub processing reward and motivation and target the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) and the shell part of nucleus accumbens (NAcs). We investigated whether subpopulations of dopamine (DA) neurons in the VTA projecting either to the mPFC or the medial division of shell part of nucleus accumbens (mNAcs) receive differential input from orexin neurons and whether orexin exerts differential electrophysiological effects upon these cells. VTA neurons projecting to the mPFC or the mNAcs were traced retrogradely by Cav2-Cre virus and identified by expression of yellow fluorescent protein (YFP). Immunocytochemical analysis showed that a higher proportion of all orexin-innervated DA neurons projected to the mNAcs (34.5%) than to the mPFC (5.2%). Of all sampled VTA neurons projecting either to the mPFC or mNAcs, the dopaminergic (68.3 vs. 79.6%) and orexin-innervated DA neurons (68.9 vs. 64.4%) represented the major phenotype. Whole-cell current clamp recordings were obtained from fluorescently labeled neurons in slices during baseline periods and bath application of orexin A. Orexin similarly increased the firing rate of VTA dopamine neurons projecting to mNAcs (1.99 ± 0.61 Hz to 2.53 ± 0.72 Hz) and mPFC (0.40 ± 0.22 Hz to 1.45 ± 0.56 Hz). Thus, the hypothalamic orexin system targets mNAcs and to a lesser extent mPFC-projecting dopaminergic neurons of the VTA and exerts facilitatory effects on both clusters of dopamine neurons.

Diet as connecting factor: Functional brain connectivity in relation to food intake and sucrose tasting, assessed with resting-state functional MRI in rats.

Eating disorders and obesity form a major health problem in Western Society. To be able to provide adequate treatment and prevention, it is necessary to understand the neural mechanisms underlying the development of eating disorders and obesity. Specific brain networks have been shown to be involved in feeding behavior. We therefore hypothesized that functional connectivity in neural networks involved in feeding behavior is dependent on the status of homeostatic energy balance, thus on being hungry or satiated. To test our hypothesis, we measured functional connectivity and amplitudes of neural signals within neural networks in relation to food intake and sucrose tasting in rats. Therefore, 16 male Wistar rats, of which eight were food-restricted and eight were satiated, underwent resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (rs-fMRI) at 9.4 T. Subsequently, half of these animals underwent a sucrose tasting procedure followed by a second rs-fMRI scan. Functional connectivity and amplitude of low-frequency signal fluctuations were statistically analyzed in a linear mixed model. Although we did not detect a significant effect of food intake on functional connectivity before sucrose tasting, there was a trend toward interaction between group (satiated vs. hungry) and treatment (sucrose tasting). Functional connectivity between feeding-related regions tended to decrease stronger upon sucrose tasting in satiated rats as compared to food-restricted rats. Furthermore, rs-fMRI signal amplitudes decreased stronger upon sucrose tasting in satiated rats, as compared to food-restricted rats. These findings indicate that food intake and sucrose tasting can affect functional network organization, which may explain the specific patterns in feeding behavior.

The temporal relationship between parental concern of overeating and childhood obesity considering genetic susceptibility: longitudinal results from the IDEFICS/I.Family study.

BACKGROUND: Many genes and molecular pathways are associated with obesity, but the mechanisms from genes to obesity are less well known. Eating behaviors represent a plausible pathway, but because the relationships of eating behaviors and obesity may be bi-directional, it remains challenging to resolve the underlying pathways. A longitudinal approach is needed to assess the contribution of genetic risk during the development of obesity in childhood. In this study we aim to examine the relationships between the polygenic risk score for body mass index (PRS-BMI), parental concern of overeating and obesity indices during childhood. METHODS: The IDEFICS/I.Family study is a school-based multicenter pan-European cohort of children observed for 6 years (mean ± SD follow-up 5.8 ± 0.4). Children examined in 2007/2008 (wave 1) (mean ± SD age: 4.4 ± 1.1, range: 2-9 years), in 2009/2010 (wave 2) and in 2013/2014 (wave 3) were included. A total of 5112 children (49% girls) participated at waves 1, 2 and 3. For 2656 children with genome-wide data we constructed a PRS based on 2.1 million single nucleotide polymorphisms. Z-score BMI and z-score waist circumference (WC) were assessed and eating behaviors and relevant confounders were reported by parents via questionnaires. Parental concern of overeating was derived from principal component analyses from an eating behavior questionnaire. RESULTS: In cross-lagged models, the prospective associations between z-score obesity indices and parental concern of overeating were bi-directional. In mediation models, the association between the PRS-BMI and parental concern of overeating at wave 3 was mediated by baseline z-BMI (ß = 0.16, 95% CI: 0.10, 0.21) and baseline z-WC (ß = 0.17, 95% CI: 0.11, 0.23). To a lesser extent, baseline parental concern of overeating also mediated the association between the PRS-BMI and z-BMI at wave 3 (ß = 0.10, 95% CI: 0.07, 0.13) and z-WC at wave 3 (ß = 0.09, 95% CI: 0.07, 0.12). CONCLUSIONS: The findings suggest that the prospective associations between obesity indices and parental concern of overeating are likely bi-directional, but obesity indices have a stronger association with future parental concern of overeating than vice versa. The findings suggest parental concern of overeating as a possible mediator in the genetic susceptibility to obesity and further highlight that other pathways are also involved. A better understanding of the genetic pathways that lead to childhood obesity can help to prevent weight gain. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Registry number: ISRCTN62310987 Retrospectively registered 17 September 2018.

The Orexigenic Force of Olfactory Palatable Food Cues in Rats.

Environmental cues recalling palatable foods motivate eating beyond metabolic need, yet the timing of this response and whether it can develop towards a less palatable but readily available food remain elusive. Increasing evidence indicates that external stimuli in the olfactory modality communicate with the major hub in the feeding neurocircuitry, namely the hypothalamic arcuate nucleus (Arc), but the neural substrates involved have been only partially uncovered. By means of a home-cage hidden palatable food paradigm, aiming to mimic ubiquitous exposure to olfactory food cues in Western societies, we investigated whether the latter could drive the overeating of plain chow in non-food-deprived male rats and explored the neural mechanisms involved, including the possible engagement of the orexigenic ghrelin system. The olfactory detection of a familiar, palatable food impacted upon meal patterns, by increasing meal frequency, to cause the persistent overconsumption of chow. In line with the orexigenic response observed, sensing the palatable food in the environment stimulated food-seeking and risk-taking behavior, which are intrinsic components of food acquisition, and caused active ghrelin release. Our results suggest that olfactory food cues recruited intermingled populations of cells embedded within the feeding circuitry within the Arc, including, notably, those containing the ghrelin receptor. These data demonstrate the leverage of ubiquitous food cues, not only for palatable food searching, but also to powerfully drive food consumption in ways that resonate with heightened hunger, for which the orexigenic ghrelin system is implicated.

The continued need for animals to advance brain research.

Policymakers aim to move toward animal-free alternatives for scientific research and have introduced very strict regulations for animal research. We argue that, for neuroscience research, until viable and translational alternatives become available and the value of these alternatives has been proven, the use of animals should not be compromised.

Leptin Receptor Expressing Neurons in the Substantia Nigra Regulate Locomotion, and in The Ventral Tegmental Area Motivation and Feeding.

Leptin is an anorexigenic hormone, important in the regulation of body weight. Leptin plays a role in food reward, feeding, locomotion and anxiety. Leptin receptors (LepR) are expressed in many brain areas, including the midbrain. In most studies that target the midbrain, either all LepR neurons of the midbrain or those of the ventral tegmental area (VTA) were targeted, but the role of substantia nigra (SN) LepR neurons has not been investigated. These studies have reported contradicting results regarding motivational behavior for food reward, feeding and locomotion. Since not all midbrain LepR mediated behaviors can be explained by LepR neurons in the VTA alone, we hypothesized that SN LepR neurons may provide further insight. We first characterized SN LepR and VTA LepR expression, which revealed LepR expression mainly on DA neurons. To further understand the role of midbrain LepR neurons in body weight regulation, we chemogenetically activated VTA LepR or SN LepR neurons in LepR-cre mice and tested for motivational behavior, feeding and locomotion. Activation of VTA LepR neurons in food restricted mice decreased motivation for food reward (p=0.032) and food intake (p=0.020), but not locomotion. In contrast, activation of SN LepR neurons in food restricted mice decreased locomotion (p=0.025), but not motivation for food reward or food intake. Our results provide evidence that VTA LepR and SN LepR neurons serve different functions, i.e. activation of VTA LepR neurons modulated motivation for food reward and feeding, while SN LepR neurons modulated locomotor activity.