Smaller subcortical volume relates to greater weight gain in girls with initially healthy weight.

OBJECTIVE: Among 3614 youth who were 9 to 12 years old and initially did not have overweight or obesity (12% [n = 385] developed overweight or obesity), we examined the natural progression of weight gain and brain structure development during a 2-year period with a high risk for obesity (e.g., pre- and early adolescence) to determine the following: 1) whether variation in maturational trajectories of the brain regions contributes to weight gain; and/or 2) whether weight gain contributes to altered brain development. METHODS: Data were gathered from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study. Linear mixed-effects regression models controlled for puberty, caregiver education, handedness, and intracranial volume (random effects: magnetic resonance scanner [MRI] scanner and participant). Because pubertal development occurs earlier in girls, analyses were stratified by sex. RESULTS: For girls, but not boys, independent of puberty, greater increases in BMI were driven by smaller volumes over time in the bilateral accumbens, amygdala, hippocampus, and thalamus, right caudate and ventral diencephalon, and left pallidum (all p < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: The results suggest a potential phenotype for identifying obesity risk because underlying differences among regions involved in food intake were related to greater weight gain in girls, but not in boys. Importantly, 2 years of weight gain may not be sufficient to alter brain development, highlighting early puberty as a critical time to prevent negative neurological outcomes.

Pre-pregnancy maternal obesity and infant neurodevelopmental outcomes in Latino infants.

OBJECTIVE: This study explores the impact of maternal pre-pregnancy BMI on infant neurodevelopment at 24 months in low-income Latino families. It also investigates whether infant diet mediates this relationship. METHODS: Latino mother-infant pairs (n = 163) were enrolled at 1 month post partum and were followed for 2 years, with assessments at 6-month intervals. Maternal pre-pregnancy anthropometrics were self-reported at baseline, and child neurodevelopment was assessed at 24 months using the Bayley Scales of Infant Development. Diet quality of infants was measured using the Healthy Eating Index (HEI)-2015 and HEI-Toddlers-2020 scores at multiple time points. Mediation and regression models that adjust for maternal factors were used to examine the associations. RESULTS: Pre-pregnancy BMI showed significant negative associations with child cognitive scores (ß = -0.1, 95% CI: -0.2 to -0.06, p < 0.001) and language scores (ß = -0.1, 95% CI: -0.2 to -0.03, p = 0.01) at 24 months. Infant HEI-2015 scores at 24 months partly mediated these associations, explaining 23% and 30% of the total effect on cognitive and language subscales, respectively. No specific dietary components in infants mediated the relationship, except for the total HEI-2015 score. CONCLUSIONS: Managing maternal obesity pre-pregnancy is crucial for improving infant neurodevelopmental outcomes, especially in low-income Latino families. Promoting healthy weight and enhancing infant diet quality can enhance neurodevelopment in these populations.

Limitations of BMI z scores for assessing weight change: A clinical tool versus individual risk.

Although pediatric growth curves provide clinical utility, using these metrics for within-person change over time can be misleading. As research is focused on understanding cardiometabolic consequences of weight gain, it is important to use precise metrics to analyze these longitudinal research questions. Despite several foundational recommendations to limit the use of reference pediatric growth curves (e.g., BMI z scores) for within-person longitudinal research, it has evolved into the "gold standard" for using growth curves for pediatric weight gain analyses. Therefore, the objective of this paper is to discuss (A) the methodology used to create reference growth curves; (B) the appropriate use of reference pediatric BMI growth curves within the context of cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses in research; and (C) how to select metrics based on desired evaluations. Careful consideration using standardized references scores is essential when assessing obesity-related questions and comorbid risk over time in pediatric populations.

Associations between community-level patterns of prenatal alcohol and tobacco exposure on brain structure in a non-clinical sample of 6-year-old children: a South African pilot study.

The current small study utilised prospective data collection of patterns of prenatal alcohol and tobacco exposure (PAE and PTE) to examine associations with structural brain outcomes in 6-year-olds and served as a pilot to determine the value of prospective data describing community-level patterns of PAE and PTE in a non-clinical sample of children. Participants from the Safe Passage Study in pregnancy were approached when their child was ∼6 years old and completed structural brain magnetic resonance imaging to examine with archived PAE and PTE data (n = 51 children-mother dyads). Linear regression was used to conduct whole-brain structural analyses, with false-discovery rate (FDR) correction, to examine: (a) main effects of PAE, PTE and their interaction; and (b) predictive potential of data that reflect patterns of PAE and PTE (e.g. quantity, frequency and timing (QFT)). Associations between PAE, PTE and their interaction with brain structural measures demonstrated unique profiles of cortical and subcortical alterations that were distinct between PAE only, PTE only and their interactive effects. Analyses examining associations between patterns of PAE and PTE (e.g. QFT) were able to significantly detect brain alterations (that survived FDR correction) in this small non-clinical sample of children. These findings support the hypothesis that considering QFT and co-exposures is important for identifying brain alterations following PAE and/or PTE in a small group of young children. Current results demonstrate that teratogenic outcomes on brain structure differ as a function PAE, PTE or their co-exposures, as well as the pattern (QFT) or exposure.

Associations between Dietary Sugar and Fiber with Infant Gut Microbiome Colonization at 6 Mo of Age.

BACKGROUND: The taxonomic composition of the gut microbiome undergoes rapid development during the first 2-3 y of life. Poor diet during complementary feeding has been associated with alterations in infant growth and compromised bone, immune system, and neurodevelopment, but how it may affect gut microbial composition is unknown. OBJECTIVES: This cross-sectional study aimed to examine the associations between early-life nutrition and the developing infant gut microbiota at 6 mo of age. METHODS: Latino mother-infant pairs from the Mother's Milk Study (n = 105) were included. Infant gut microbiota and dietary intake were analyzed at 6 mo of age using 16S ribosomal RNA amplicon sequencing and 24-h dietary recalls, respectively. Poisson generalized linear regression analysis was performed to examine associations between dietary nutrients and microbial community abundance while adjusting for infants' mode of delivery, antibiotics, infant feeding type, time of introduction of solid foods, energy intake, and body weight. A P value of <0.05 was used to determine the statistical significance in the study. RESULTS: Infants with higher consumption of total sugar exhibited a lower relative abundance of the genera Bacteroides (ß = -0.01; 95% CI: -0.02, -0.00; P = 0.03) and genus Clostridium belonging to the Lachnospiraceae family (ß = -0.02; 95% CI: -0.03, -0.00; P = 0.01). In addition, a higher intake of free sugar (which excludes sugar from milk, dairy, and whole fruit) was associated with several bacteria at the genus level, including Parabacteroides genus (ß = 0.03; 95% CI: 0.01, 0.05; P = 0.001). Total insoluble fiber intake was associated with favorable bacteria at the genus level such as Faecalibacterium (ß = 0.28; 95% CI: 0.03, 0.52; P = 0.02) and Coprococcus (ß = 0.28; 95% CI: 0.02, 0.52; P = 0.03). CONCLUSION: These findings demonstrate that early-life dietary intake at 6 mo impacts the developing gut microbiome associated with the presence of both unfavorable gut microbes and dietary fiber-associated commensal microbes.

Sex-specific impulsivity, but not other facets of executive function, predicts fat and sugar intake two-years later amongst adolescents with a healthy weight: Findings from the ABCD study.

During adolescence, processes that control food intake (executive functions [EF]) undergo extensive refinement; underlying differences in EF may explain the inability to resist overeating unhealthy foods. Yet, overeating fat and sugar also causes changes to EF and cognition but disentangling these relationships has been difficult, as previous studies included youth with obesity. Here, amongst youth initially of a healthy weight, we evaluate whether 1) sex-specific underlying variation in EF/cognition at 9/10-years-old predict fat/sugar two-years later (Y2) and 2) if these relationships are moderated by body mass index (BMI), using linear mixed effects models (controlled for puberty, caregiver education; random effect: study site). Data were leveraged from Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development Study (n = 2987; 50.4% male; 15.4% Latino/a/x; 100% healthy weight at baseline; 12.4% overweight/obese by Y2, data release 4.0). EF and cognition (e.g., inhibition, cognition, motor, memory, impulsivity) were assessed with the NIH toolbox, Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Task, Little Man Task, the BIS/BAS, and UPPS-P. A saturated fat/added sugar (kcals) composite score was extracted from the validated Kids Food Block Screener. For males, greater baseline impulsivity (e.g., Positive Urgency, Lack of Planning and Perseverance) and reward (e.g., Fun seeking, Drive) was related to greater Y2 intake. For both sexes, greater baseline Negative Urgency and higher BMI was related to greater Y2 intake. No other relationships were observed. Our findings highlight a phenotype that may be more at risk for weight gain due to overconsumption of fat/sugar. Thus, prevention efforts may wish to focus on impulsive tendencies for these foods.

Associations among prenatal exposure to gestational diabetes mellitus, brain structure, and child adiposity markers.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to investigate the mediating role of child brain structure in the relationship between prenatal gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) exposure and child adiposity. METHODS: This was a cross-sectional study of 9- to 10-year-old participants and siblings across the US. Data were obtained from the baseline assessment of the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study®. Brain structure was evaluated by magnetic resonance imaging. GDM exposure was self-reported, and discordance for GDM exposure within biological siblings was identified. Mixed effects and mediation models were used to examine associations among prenatal GDM exposure, brain structure, and adiposity markers with sociodemographic covariates. RESULTS: The sample included 8521 children (7% GDM-exposed), among whom there were 28 sibling pairs discordant for GDM exposure. Across the entire study sample, prenatal exposure to GDM was associated with lower global and regional cortical gray matter volume (GMV) in the bilateral rostral middle frontal gyrus and superior temporal gyrus. GDM-exposed siblings also demonstrated lower global cortical GMV than unexposed siblings. Global cortical GMV partially mediated the associations between prenatal GDM exposure and child adiposity markers. CONCLUSIONS: The results identify brain markers of prenatal GDM exposure and suggest that low cortical GMV may explain increased obesity risk for offspring prenatally exposed to GDM.

Variation in executive function relates to BMI increases in youth who were initially of a healthy weight in the ABCD Study.

OBJECTIVE: The study aim was to determine whether (A) differences in executive function (EF) and cognition precede weight gain or (B) weight gain causes changes to EF and cognition. METHODS: Data were gathered from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study (release 4.0; ages 9-12 years old [N = 2794]; 100% had healthy weight at baseline [i.e., 9/10 years old], 12.4% had unhealthy weight by ages 11/12 years). EF and cognition were assessed across several domains (e.g., impulsivity, inhibitory control, processing speed, memory); BMI was calculated from height and weight. Nested random-effects mixed models examined (A) BMI ~ EF × Time (i.e., variation in EF/cognition precedes weight gain) and (B) EF ~ BMI × Time (weight gain causes changes to EF/cognition) and controlled for sex, puberty, and caregiver education; random effects were site and subject. RESULTS: Variation in impulsivity, memory, learning, and processing speed was associated with greater increases in BMI trajectories from 9 to 12 years old. Weight gain was associated with a decrease in inhibitory control, but no other associations were observed. CONCLUSIONS: Underlying variation in EF and cognition may be important for weight gain, but 2 years of weight gain may not be enough to have clinical implications for EF and cognition beyond inhibitory control. These findings suggest that more attention should be paid to the inclusion of EF programs in obesity prevention efforts.

Switching between foods: A potential behavioral phenotype of hedonic hunger and increased obesity risk in children.

CONTEXT: Reward-based eating is a trait that increases risk for eating in the absence of hunger (EAH) and obesity. Eating behaviors such as switching more frequently between different foods may increase intake during EAH by delaying the onset of sensory-specific satiation (SSS); however, this question has not been empirically tested. OBJECTIVES: 1) Test whether switching between foods mediates the relationship between reward-based eating and EAH intake. 2) Test whether switching between foods during EAH moderates the relationship between reward-based eating and weight status. METHODS: Data were analyzed from a study assessing decision-making in children (n = 63 children; 9.4 ± 1.4 years, 77.0 ± 22.4 BMI%tile). Reward-based eating was quantified using the Children's Eating Behaviour Questionnaire. EAH was assessed as the amount of palatable food consumed following ad libitum consumption of a standard meal. Videos of eating behavior were coded for eating time, number of different foods consumed, and food switches. Ordinary least squares regressions were conducted to test hypotheses. RESULTS: Switching was positively associated with EAH intake for both kcal (p < 0.01) and grams (p < 0.01) such that each additional switch was associated with an increased intake of 17.0 kcal or 3.5 gs. Switching mediated the relationship between reward-based eating and EAH (p < 0.01) such that more frequent switching fully accounted for the positive association between reward-based eating and EAH (ps < 0.01). While reward-based eating was also positively associated with weight status (p < 0.01), this association was moderated by food switching (p < 0.01) such that the relationship was stronger for children who switch more frequently (p < 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: Frequent switching between foods was positively associated with EAH intake and mediated the relationship between reward-based eating and EAH. Moreover, reward-based eating was more strongly related to weight status in children who switched more frequently. Thus, food switching may contribute to overconsumption and be an important behavioral indicator of increased obesity risk in children. Studies across multiple meals and contexts will help determine if switching is a reliable behavioral phenotype.

Socioeconomic Adversity and Weight Gain During the COVID-19 Pandemic.

This cohort study uses a natural experimental design to assess the impact of the COVID-19 lockdown on weight gain as associated with socioeconomic disadvantage in a diverse population of US youth.

Family- and neighborhood-level environmental associations with physical health conditions in 9- and 10-year-olds.

OBJECTIVE: To determine how environmental factors are associated with physical health conditions in 9- to 10-year-old participants in the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study, and how they are moderated by family-level socioeconomic status (SES). METHOD: We performed cross-sectional analyses of 8,429 youth participants in the ABCD Study, in which nine physical health conditions (having underweight or overweight/obesity, not participating in sports activities, short sleep duration, high sleep disturbances, lack of vigorous and strengthening-related physical activity, miscellaneous medical problems, and traumatic brain injury) were regressed on three environmental factors [neighborhood disadvantage (area deprivation index [ADI]), risk of lead exposure, and concentrations of particulate matter 2.5 (PM2.5)] and their interaction with family-level SES (i.e., parent-reported annual household income). Environmental data were geocoded to participants' primary residential addresses at 9- to 10-year-olds. RESULTS: Risk of lead exposure and ADI were positively associated with the odds of having overweight/obesity, not participating in sports activity, and short sleep durations. ADI was also positively associated with high sleep disturbances. PM2.5 was positively associated with the odds of having overweight/obesity and reduced vigorous physical activity. Family-level SES moderated relationships between ADI and both underweight and overweight/obesity, with high SES being associated with more pronounced changes given increased ADI. CONCLUSIONS: Policymakers and public health officials must implement policies and remediation strategies to ensure children are free from exposure to neurotoxicant and environmental factors. Physical health conditions may be less of a product of an individual's choices and more related to environmental influences. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Relating neighborhood deprivation to childhood obesity in the ABCD study: Evidence for theories of neuroinflammation and neuronal stress.

OBJECTIVE: We evaluated whether relationships between area deprivation (ADI), body mass index (BMI) and brain structure (e.g., cortical thickness, subcortical volume) during preadolescence supported the immunologic model of self-regulation failure (NI) and/or neuronal stress (NS) theories of overeating. The NI theory proposes that ADI causes structural alteration in the brain due to the neuroinflammatory effects of overeating unhealthy foods. The NS theory proposes that ADI-related stress negatively impacts brain structure, which causes stress-related overeating and subsequent obesity. METHOD: Data were gathered from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development Study (9 to 12 years old; n = 3,087, 51% male). Linear mixed-effects models identified brain regions that were associated with both ADI and BMI; longitudinal associations were evaluated with mediation models. The NI model included ADI and BMI at 9 to 10 years old and brain data at 11 to 12 years old. The NS model included ADI and brain data at 9 to 10 years old and BMI at 11 to 12 years old. RESULTS: BMI at 9 to 10 years old partially mediated the relationship between ADI and ventral diencephalon (DC) volume at 11 to 12 years old. Additionally, the ventral DC at 9 to 10 years old partially mediated the relationship between ADI and BMI at 11 to 12 years old, even in youth who at baseline, were of a healthy weight. Results were unchanged when controlling for differences in brain structure and weight across the 2-years. CONCLUSION: Greater area deprivation may indicate fewer access to resources that support healthy development, like nutritious food and nonstressful environments. Our findings provide evidence in support of the NI and NS theories of overeating, specifically, with greater ADI influencing health outcomes of obesity via brain structure alterations. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Longitudinal assessment of brain structure and behaviour in youth with rapid weight gain: Potential contributing causes and consequences.

OBJECTIVE: Independent of weight status, rapid weight gain has been associated with underlying brain structure variation in regions associated with food intake and impulsivity among pre-adolescents. Yet, we lack clarity on how developmental maturation coincides with rapid weight gain and weight stability. METHODS: We identified brain predictors of 2-year rapid weight gain and its longitudinal effects on brain structure and impulsivity in the Adolescent Brain Cognitive DevelopmentSM Study®. Youth were categorized as Healthy Weight/Weight Stable (WSHW , n = 527) or Weight Gainers (WG, n = 221, >38lbs); 63% of the WG group were healthy weight at 9-to-10-years-old. RESULTS: A fivefold cross-validated logistic elastic-net regression revealed that rapid weight gain was associated with structural variation amongst 39 brain features at 9-to-10-years-old in regions involved with executive functioning, appetitive control and reward sensitivity. Two years later, WG youth showed differences in change over time in several of these regions and performed worse on measures of impulsivity. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that brain structure in pre-adolescence may predispose some to rapid weight gain and that weight gain itself may alter maturational brain change in regions important for food intake and impulsivity. Behavioural interventions that target inhibitory control may improve trajectories of brain maturation and facilitate healthier behaviours.

Loss of control eating in children is associated with altered cortical and subcortical brain structure.

Introduction: Loss of control (LOC) eating is the perceived inability to control how much is eaten, regardless of actual amount consumed. Childhood LOC-eating is a risk factor for the development of binge-eating disorder (BED), but its neurobiological basis is poorly understood. Studies in children with BED have shown both increased gray matter volume in regions related to top-down cognitive control (e.g., dorsolateral prefrontal cortex) and reward-related decision making (e.g., orbital frontal cortex) relative to healthy controls. However, no studies have examined brain structure in children with LOC-eating. To identify potential neurobiological precursors of BED, we conducted secondary analysis of five studies that conducted T1 MPRAGE scans. Methods: A total of 143, 7-12-year-old children (M = 8.9 years, 70 boys) were included in the study, 26% of which (n = 37) reported LOC-eating (semi-structured interview). Age, sex, and obesity status did not differ by LOC-eating. Differences between children with and without LOC were examined for gray matter volume, cortical thickness, gyrification, sulci depth, and cortical complexity after adjusting for age, sex, total intercranial volume, weight status, and study. Results: Children with LOC, relative to those without, had greater gray matter volume in right orbital frontal cortex but lower gray matter volume in right parahippocampal gyrus, left CA4/dentate gyrus, and left cerebellar lobule VI. While there were no differences in cortical thickness or gyrification, children with LOC-eating had great sulci depth in left anterior cingulate cortex and cuneus and greater cortical complexity in right insular cortex. Discussion: Together, this indicates that children with LOC-eating have structural differences in regions related to cognitive control, reward-related decision-making, and regulation of eating behaviors.

The impact of prenatal alcohol and/or tobacco exposure on brain structure in a large sample of children from a South African birth cohort.

BACKGROUND: Neuroimaging studies have emphasized the impact of prenatal alcohol exposure (PAE) on brain development, traditionally in heavily exposed participants. However, less is known about how naturally occurring community patterns of PAE (including light to moderate exposure) affect brain development, particularly in consideration of commonly occurring concurrent impacts of prenatal tobacco exposure (PTE). METHODS: Three hundred thirty-two children (ages 8 to 12) living in South Africa's Cape Flats townships underwent structural magnetic resonance imaging. During pregnancy, their mothers reported alcohol and tobacco use, which was used to evaluate PAE and PTE effects on their children's brain structure. Analyses involved the main effects of PAE and PTE (and their interaction) and the effects of PAE and PTE quantity on cortical thickness, surface area, and volume. RESULTS: After false-discovery rate (FDR) correction, PAE was associated with thinner left parahippocampal cortices, while PTE was associated with smaller cortical surface area in the bilateral pericalcarine, left lateral orbitofrontal, right posterior cingulate, right rostral anterior cingulate, left caudal middle frontal, and right caudal anterior cingulate gyri. There were no PAE × PTE interactions nor any associations of PAE and PTE exposure on volumetrics that survived FDR correction. CONCLUSION: PAE was associated with reduction in the structure of the medial temporal lobe, a brain region critical for learning and memory. PTE had stronger and broader associations, including with regions associated with executive function, reward processing, and emotional regulation, potentially reflecting continued postnatal exposure to tobacco (i.e., second-hand smoke exposure). These differential effects are discussed with respect to reduced PAE quantity in our exposed group versus prior studies within this geographical location, the deep poverty in which participants live, and the consequences of apartheid and racially and economically driven payment practices that contributed to heavy drinking in the region. Longer-term follow-up is needed to determine potential environmental and other moderators of the brain findings here and assess the extent to which they endure over time.

Influence of exclusive breastfeeding on hippocampal structure, satiety responsiveness, and weight status.

Longer exclusive breastfeeding duration has been associated with differences in neural development, better satiety responsiveness, and decreased risk for childhood obesity. Given hippocampus sensitivity to diet and potential role in the integration of satiety signals, hippocampus may play a role in these relationships. We conducted a secondary analysis of 149, 7-11-year-olds (73 males) who participated in one of five studies that assessed neural responses to food cues. Hippocampal grey matter volume was extracted from structural scans using CAT12, weight status was assessed using age- and sex-adjusted body mass index (%BMIp85 ), and parents reported exclusive breastfeeding duration and satiety responsiveness (Children's Eating Behaviour Questionnaire). Separate path models for left and right hippocampus tested: (1) the direct effect of exclusive breastfeeding on satiety responsiveness and its indirect effect through hippocampal grey matter volume; (2) the direct effect of hippocampal grey matter volume on %BMIp85 and its indirect effect through satiety responsiveness. %BMIp85 was adjusted for maternal education, yearly income, and premature birth while hippocampal grey matter volume was adjusted for total intercranial volume, age, and study from which data were extracted. Longer exclusive breastfeeding duration was associated with greater bilateral hippocampal grey matter volumes. In addition, better satiety responsiveness and greater left hippocampal grey matter volume were both associated with lower %BMIp85 . However, hippocampal grey matter volumes were not associated with satiety responsiveness. Although no relationship was found between breastfeeding and child weight status, these results highlight the potential impact of exclusive breastfeeding duration on the hippocampal structure.

Access to quality health resources and environmental toxins affect the relationship between brain structure and BMI in a sample of pre and early adolescents.

Background: Environmental resources are related to childhood obesity risk and altered brain development, but whether these relationships are stable or if they have sustained impact is unknown. Here, we utilized a multidimensional index of childhood neighborhood conditions to compare the influence of various social and environmental disparities (SED) on body mass index (BMI)-brain relationships over a 2-year period in early adolescence. Methods: Data were gathered the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development Study® (n = 2,970, 49.8% female, 69.1% White, no siblings). Structure magnetic resonance imaging (sMRI), anthropometrics, and demographic information were collected at baseline (9/10-years-old) and the 2-year-follow-up (11/12-years-old). Region of interest (ROIs; 68 cortical, 18 subcortical) estimates of cortical thickness and subcortical volume were extracted from sMRI T1w images using the Desikan atlas. Residential addresses at baseline were used to obtain geocoded estimates of SEDs from 3 domains of childhood opportunity index (COI): healthy environment (COIHE), social/economic (COISE), and education (COIED). Nested, random-effects mixed models were conducted to evaluate relationships of BMI with (1) ROI * COI[domain] and (2) ROI * COI[domain] * Time. Models controlled for sex, race, ethnicity, puberty, and the other two COI domains of non-interest, allowing us to estimate the unique variance explained by each domain and its interaction with ROI and time. Results: Youth living in areas with lower COISE and COIED scores were heavier at the 2-year follow-up than baseline and exhibited greater thinning in the bilateral occipital cortex between visits. Lower COISE scores corresponded with larger volume of the bilateral caudate and greater BMI at the 2-year follow-up. COIHE scores showed the greatest associations (n = 20 ROIs) with brain-BMI relationships: youth living in areas with lower COIHE had thinner cortices in prefrontal regions and larger volumes of the left pallidum and Ventral DC. Time did not moderate the COIHE x ROI interaction for any brain region during the examined 2-year period. Findings were independent of family income (i.e., income-to-needs). Conclusion: Collectively our findings demonstrate that neighborhood SEDs for health-promoting resources play a particularly important role in moderating relationships between brain and BMI in early adolescence regardless of family-level financial resources.

A Comprehensive Overview of the Physical Health of the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development Study Cohort at Baseline.

Physical health in childhood is crucial for neurobiological as well as overall development, and can shape long-term outcomes into adulthood. The landmark, longitudinal Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development StudySM (ABCD study®), was designed to investigate brain development and health in almost 12,000 youth who were recruited when they were 9-10 years old and will be followed through adolescence and early adulthood. The overall goal of this paper is to provide descriptive analyses of physical health measures in the ABCD study at baseline, including but not limited to sleep, physical activity and sports involvement, and body mass index. Further this summary will describe how physical health measures collected from the ABCD cohort compare with current normative data and clinical guidelines. We propose this data set has the potential to facilitate clinical recommendations and inform national standards of physical health in this age group. This manuscript will also provide important information for ABCD users and help guide analyses investigating physical health including new avenues for health disparity research as it pertains to adolescent and young adult development.

Decision-Making Processes Related to Perseveration Are Indirectly Associated With Weight Status in Children Through Laboratory-Assessed Energy Intake.

Decision-making contributes to what and how much we consume, and deficits in decision-making have been associated with increased weight status in children. Nevertheless, the relationships between cognitive and affective processes underlying decision-making (i.e., decision-making processes) and laboratory food intake are unclear. We used data from a four-session, within-subjects laboratory study to investigate the relationships between decision-making processes, food intake, and weight status in 70 children 7-to-11-years-old. Decision-making was assessed with the Hungry Donkey Task (HDT), a child-friendly task where children make selections with unknown reward outcomes. Food intake was measured with three paradigms: (1) a standard ad libitum meal, (2) an eating in the absence of hunger (EAH) protocol, and (3) a palatable buffet meal. Individual differences related to decision-making processes during the HDT were quantified with a reinforcement learning model. Path analyses were used to test whether decision-making processes that contribute to children's (a) expected value of a choice and (b) tendency to perseverate (i.e., repeatedly make the same choice) were indirectly associated with weight status through their effects on intake (kcal). Results revealed that increases in the tendency to perseverate after a gain outcome were positively associated with intake at all three paradigms and indirectly associated with higher weight status through intake at both the standard and buffet meals. Increases in the tendency to perseverate after a loss outcome were positively associated with EAH, but only in children whose tendency to perseverate persistedacross trials. Results suggest that decision-making processes that shape children's tendencies to repeat a behavior (i.e., perseverate) are related to laboratory energy intake across multiple eating paradigms. Children who are more likely to repeat a choice after a positive outcome have a tendency to eat more at laboratory meals. If this generalizes to contexts outside the laboratory, these children may be susceptible to obesity. By using a reinforcement learning model not previously applied to the study of eating behaviors, this study elucidated potential determinants of excess energy intake in children, which may be useful for the development of childhood obesity interventions.