Pharmacokinetic and Pharmacodynamic Modeling of Tezepelumab to Guide Phase 3 Dose Selection for Patients With Severe Asthma.

Tezepelumab is a human monoclonal antibody that blocks thymic stromal lymphopoietin, an epithelial cytokine involved in asthma pathogenesis. In the phase 2b PATHWAY study (ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT02054130), tezepelumab significantly reduced exacerbations in adults with severe, uncontrolled asthma. We used pharmacokinetic (PK) and pharmacodynamic (PD) modeling to guide tezepelumab dose selection for phase 3 trials in patients with severe asthma. PK data from 7 clinical studies were used to develop a population PK model. Population PK-PD models were developed to characterize the relationship between tezepelumab PK and asthma exacerbation rate (AER) and fractional exhaled nitric oxide (FeNO) levels (using phase 2b PD data only). Tezepelumab PK were well described by a 2-compartment model with first-order absorption; PK parameter estimates were consistent with those of other immunoglobulin G2 antibodies. PK-PD models predicted that subcutaneous dosing at 210 mg every 4 weeks was associated with ≈90% of the maximum drug effect of tezepelumab on AER and FeNO; further dose increases were not expected to result in additional, clinically meaningful treatment benefit. No clinically significant covariates of treatment effects on AER and FeNO were identified. Population PK simulations, exposure-response relationships and safety profiles of tezepelumab at doses up to 280 mg every 2 weeks suggested that no dose adjustment based on body weight or for adolescents was required. These results support the selection of 210 mg every 4 weeks subcutaneously as the dose for phase 3 studies of tezepelumab in adults and adolescents with severe asthma.

Targeting macrophage checkpoint inhibitor SIRPα for anticancer therapy.

The CD47/signal regulatory protein α (Cd47/SIRPα)interaction provides a macrophage immune checkpoint pathway that plays a critical role in cancer immune evasion across multiple cancers. Here, we report the engineering of a humanized anti-SIRPα monoclonal antibody (1H9) for antibody target cancer therapy. 1H9 has broad activity across a wide range of SIRPα variants. Binding of 1H9 to SIRPα blocks its interaction with CD47, thereby promoting macrophage-mediated phagocytosis of cancer cells. Preclinical studies in vitro and in vivo demonstrate that 1H9 synergizes with other therapeutic antibodies to promote phagocytosis of tumor cells and inhibit tumor growth in both syngeneic and xenograft tumor models, leading to survival benefit. Thus, 1H9 can potentially act as a universal agent to enhance therapeutic efficacy when used in combination with most tumor-targeting antibodies. We report a comparison of anti-SIRPα and anti-CD47 antibodies in CD47/SIRPα double-humanized mice and found that 1H9 exhibits a substantially reduced antigen sink effect due to the limited tissue distribution of SIRPα expression. Toxicokinetic studies in nonhuman primates show that 1H9 is well tolerated, with no treatment-related adverse effects noted. These data highlight the clinical potential of 1H9 as a pan-therapeutic with the desired properties when used in combination with tumor-targeting antibodies.

First-in-Human, First-in-Class Phase I Trial of the Anti-CD47 Antibody Hu5F9-G4 in Patients With Advanced Cancers.

PURPOSE: To evaluate the safety, pharmacokinetics, and pharmacodynamics of Hu5F9-G4 (5F9), a humanized IgG4 antibody that targets CD47 to enable phagocytosis. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Adult patients with solid tumors were treated in four cohorts: part A, to determine a priming dose; part B, to determine a weekly maintenance dose; part C, to study a loading dose in week 2; and a tumor biopsy cohort. RESULTS: Sixty-two patients were treated: 11 in part A, 14 in B, 22 in C, and 15 in the biopsy cohort. Part A used doses that ranged from 0.1 to 3 mg/kg. On the basis of tolerability and receptor occupancy studies that showed 100% CD47 saturation on RBCs, 1 mg/kg was selected as the priming dose. In subsequent groups, patients were treated with maintenance doses that ranged from 3 to 45 mg/kg, and most toxicities were mild to moderate. These included transient anemia (57% of patients), hemagglutination on peripheral blood smear (36%), fatigue (64%), headaches (50%), fever (45%), chills (45%), hyperbilirubinemia (34%), lymphopenia (34%), infusion-related reactions (34%), and arthralgias (18%). No maximum tolerated dose was reached with maintenance doses up to 45 mg/kg. At doses of 10 mg/kg or more, the CD47 antigen sink was saturated by 5F9, and a 5F9 half-life of approximately 13 days was observed. Strong antibody staining of tumor tissue was observed in a patient at 30 mg/kg. Two patients with ovarian/fallopian tube cancers had partial remissions for 5.2 and 9.2 months. CONCLUSION: 5F9 is well tolerated using a priming dose at 1 mg/kg on day 1 followed by maintenance doses of up to 45 mg/kg weekly.

CD47 Blockade by Hu5F9-G4 and Rituximab in Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma.

BACKGROUND: The Hu5F9-G4 (hereafter, 5F9) antibody is a macrophage immune checkpoint inhibitor blocking CD47 that induces tumor-cell phagocytosis. 5F9 synergizes with rituximab to eliminate B-cell non-Hodgkin's lymphoma cells by enhancing macrophage-mediated antibody-dependent cellular phagocytosis. This combination was evaluated clinically. METHODS: We conducted a phase 1b study involving patients with relapsed or refractory non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. Patients may have had diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) or follicular lymphoma. 5F9 (at a priming dose of 1 mg per kilogram of body weight, administered intravenously, with weekly maintenance doses of 10 to 30 mg per kilogram) was given with rituximab to determine safety and efficacy and to suggest a phase 2 dose. RESULTS: A total of 22 patients (15 with DLBCL and 7 with follicular lymphoma) were enrolled. Patients had received a median of 4 (range, 2 to 10) previous therapies, and 95% of the patients had disease that was refractory to rituximab. Adverse events were predominantly of grade 1 or 2. The most common adverse events were anemia and infusion-related reactions. Anemia (an expected on-target effect) was mitigated by the strategy of 5F9 prime and maintenance dosing. Dose-limiting side effects were rare. A selected phase 2 dose of 30 mg of 5F9 per kilogram led to an approximate 100% CD47-receptor occupancy on circulating white and red cells. A total of 50% of the patients had an objective (i.e., complete or partial) response, with 36% having a complete response. The rates of objective response and complete response were 40% and 33%, respectively, among patients with DLBCL and 71% and 43%, respectively, among those with follicular lymphoma. At a median follow-up of 6.2 months among patients with DLBCL and 8.1 months among those with follicular lymphoma, 91% of the responses were ongoing. CONCLUSIONS: The macrophage checkpoint inhibitor 5F9 combined with rituximab showed promising activity in patients with aggressive and indolent lymphoma. No clinically significant safety events were observed in this initial study. (Funded by Forty Seven and the Leukemia and Lymphoma Society; ClinicalTrials.gov number, NCT02953509 .).

Dose-Exposure-Response Relationship of the Investigational Anti-Interleukin-13 Monoclonal Antibody Tralokinumab in Patients With Severe, Uncontrolled Asthma.

Interleukin (IL)-13 is involved in the pathogenesis of some types of asthma. Tralokinumab is a human immunoglobulin G4 monoclonal antibody that specifically binds to IL-13. Two placebo-controlled phase II studies (phase IIa, NCT00873860 and phase IIb, NCT01402986) have been conducted in which tralokinumab was administered subcutaneously. This investigation aimed to characterize tralokinumab's dose-exposure-response (forced expiratory volume in 1 s (FEV1 )) relationship in patients with asthma and to predict the most appropriate dose for phase III. An integrated population pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic (PK/PD) modeling analysis was required for phase III dose selection, due to differing phase II patient populations, designs, and regimens. Analysis of combined datasets enabled the identification of tralokinumab's dose-exposure-FEV1 response relationship in patients with asthma. Near-maximal FEV1 increase was predicted at a dose of 300 mg SC once every 2 weeks (Q2W). This dose was chosen for tralokinumab in the phase III clinical development program for treatment of severe, uncontrolled asthma.

Tralokinumab pharmacokinetics and tolerability when administered by different subcutaneous injection methods and rates
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OBJECTIVE: Tralokinumab, administered as two 1-mL subcutaneous injections every 2 weeks, at the target dose 300 mg, has been shown to improve lung function in patients with asthma. This study evaluated the pharmacokinetic (PK) and tolerability profile of tralokinumab 300 mg when administered by different rates of subcutaneous injection, as part of a pilot investigation of new injection regimens. METHODS: This phase I study randomized 60 healthy adults to receive 300 mg tralokinumab, as two 1-mL subcutaneous injections, each delivered over 10 seconds, or one 2-mL injection delivered over 10 seconds (12 mL/min), 1 minute (2 mL/min), or 12 minutes (0.167 mL/min). RESULTS: No differences in the PK profile of tralokinumab were observed between cohorts. Immediately following injection, injection-site pain intensity (mean (SD)) was lowest following 0.167 mL/min injection (5.1 mm (8.0) via visual analog scale (VAS)) and greatest following 12 mL/min injection (41 mm (27.7) via VAS); with mean injection-site pruritus intensity low for all participants. Two types of local injection-site reactions were observed: erythema (58.3%) and hematoma/bleeding (18.3%). All treatment-emergent adverse events were mild. CONCLUSIONS: Tralokinumab 300 mg is well tolerated, with comparable PK, when administered by a single 2-mL injection at different rates of subcutaneous injection vs. two 1-mL injections.
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A mathematical analysis of rebound in a target-mediated drug disposition model: II. With feedback.

We consider the possibility of free receptor (antigen/cytokine) levels rebounding to higher than the baseline level after the application of an antibody drug using a target-mediated drug disposition model. It is assumed that the receptor synthesis rate experiences homeostatic feedback from the receptor levels. It is shown for a very fast feedback response, that the occurrence of rebound is determined by the ratio of the elimination rates, in a very similar way as for no feedback. However, for a slow feedback response, there will always be rebound. This result is illustrated with an example involving the drug efalizumab for patients with psoriasis. It is shown that slow feedback can be a plausible explanation for the observed rebound in this example.

The application of mathematical modelling to the design of bispecific monoclonal antibodies.

Targeting multiple receptors with bispecific antibodies is a novel approach that may prevent the development of resistance to cancer treatments. Despite the initial promise, full clinical benefit of this technology has yet to be realized. We hypothesized that in order to optimally exploit bispecific antibody technology, thorough fundamental knowledge of their pharmacological properties compared to that of single agent combinations was needed. Therefore, we developed a mathematical model for the binding of bispecific antibodies to their targets that accounts for the spatial distribution of the binding receptors and the kinetics of binding, and is scalable for increasing valency. The model provided an adequate description of internal and literature-reported in vitro data on bispecific binding. Simulations of in vitro binding with the model indicated that bispecific antibodies are not always superior in their binding potency to combination of antibodies, and the affinity of bispecific arms must be optimized for maximum binding potency. Our results suggest that this tool can be used for the design and development of the next generation of anti-cancer bispecific compounds.

Pharmacokinetics of tralokinumab in adolescents with asthma: implications for future dosing.

AIMS: Tralokinumab, an investigational human immunoglobulin G4 monoclonal antibody, potently and specifically neutralizes interleukin-13, a central mediator of asthma. Tralokinumab has shown improvements in clinical endpoints in adults with uncontrolled asthma. The present study explored the pharmacokinetics (PK) and safety of a single tralokinumab dose, and utilized a population PK modelling and simulation approach to evaluate the optimal dosing strategy for adolescents. METHODS: Adolescent subjects with asthma, using daily controller medication, received a single subcutaneous dose of tralokinumab 300 mg. Safety, immunogenicity and PK data were collected during a 57-day follow-up. A population PK model was developed using data from the present study and prior studies in adults. Simulations were performed to evaluate dose adjustment requirements for adolescents. RESULTS: Twenty adolescents (12-17 years) were enrolled; all completed the study. No clinically relevant safety findings or antidrug antibodies were detected. PK parameters were similar to those observed in adults. PK modelling showed that body weight was a minor predictor of tralokinumab PK; after incorporating body weight into the PK model, a 15% (nonparametric 95% confidence interval 5%, 26%) lower clearance was found in adolescents compared with adults [173 (151, 209) vs. 204 (191, 229) ml day(-1)]. Simulations showed no therapeutically relevant differences in exposures between adolescent and adult populations, and similar PK profiles for weight-based (4 mg kg(-1)) and fixed (300 mg) fortnightly subcutaneous doses of tralokinumab. CONCLUSION: Single-dose administration of tralokinumab 300 mg in adolescents was well tolerated, with a PK profile similar to that in adults. Exposure predictions suggest that dose adjustment is not required for adolescents.

A mathematical analysis of rebound in a target-mediated drug disposition model: I.without feedback.

We consider the possibility of free receptor (antigen/cytokine) levels rebounding to higher than the baseline level after one or more applications of an antibody drug using a target-mediated drug disposition model. Using geometry and dynamical systems analysis, we show that rebound will occur if and only if the elimination rate of the drug-receptor product is slower than the elimination rates of the drug and of the receptor. We also analyse the magnitude of rebound through approximations and simulations and demonstrate that it increases if the drug dose increases or if the difference between the elimination rate of the drug-receptor product and the minimum of the elimination rates of the drug and of the receptor increases.

At the bench: the key role of PK-PD modelling in enabling the early discovery of biologic therapies.

Pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic (PK-PD) modelling is already used extensively in pre-clinical and clinical drug development to characterize drug candidates quantitatively, aid go/no-go decisions and to inform future trial design and optimal dosing regimens. Less well known, although arguably as powerful, is its application at the earliest stages of drug development, at target selection and lead selection, where these same techniques can be used to predict and so bring forward drug candidates with the necessary characteristics or, for unachievable requirements, allow the abandonment of the programme for the minimum spend of time and cost. We consider three examples that illustrate the power of the application of modelling at this early stage. We start with the simple case of determining the optimal characteristics for a monoclonal antibody against a soluble ligand with its application to the investment decision for the development of best-in-class compounds. This is extended to the more complex situation of the target protein having an endogenous, inhibitory binding protein. We then illustrate how using physiologically-based pharmacokinetic modelling enables the appropriate engineering and testing of biological therapeutics for optimal PK-PD characteristics. These examples illustrate how a minimal investment in modelling achieves orders of magnitude better returns in choosing the correct targets, mechanism of action and candidate characteristics to progress to clinical trials, streamlining drug development and delivering better medicines to patients.

Analytical assay platforms for soluble target engagement biomarkers: old favorites and emerging technologies.

Quantification of soluble biomarkers is critical for assessing target engagement in both preclinical and clinical settings. Since the advent of the commonly used ELISA, there has been an array of immunoassay platforms to achieve this goal, and many researchers will have a favorite. This review will compare and contrast immunoassay technologies used by many pharmaceutical and CRO groups and highlight emerging assay platforms that may deliver more sensitive assays. Several case studies will be used throughout as the changing immunoassay landscape is discussed.

Regulation of leukotriene and 5oxoETE synthesis and the effect of 5-lipoxygenase inhibitors: a mathematical modeling approach.

BACKGROUND: 5-lipoxygenase (5-LO) is a key enzyme in the synthesis of leukotrienes and 5-Oxo-6E,8Z,11Z,14Z-eicosatetraenoic acid (oxoETE). These inflammatory signaling molecules play a role in the pathology of asthma and so 5-LO inhibition is a promising target for asthma therapy. The 5-LO redox inhibitor zileuton (Zyflo IR/CR(®)) is currently marketed for the treatment of asthma in adults and children, but widespread use of zileuton is limited by its efficacy/safety profile, potentially related to its redox characteristics. Thus, a quantitative, mechanistic description of its functioning may be useful for development of improved anti-inflammatory targeting this mechanism. RESULTS: A mathematical model describing the operation of 5-LO, phospholipase A2, glutathione peroxidase and 5-hydroxyeicosanoid dehydrogenase was developed. The catalytic cycles of the enzymes were reconstructed and kinetic parameters estimated on the basis of available experimental data. The final model describes each stage of cys-leukotriene biosynthesis and the reactions involved in oxoETE production. Regulation of these processes by substrates (phospholipid concentration) and intracellular redox state (concentrations of reduced glutathione, glutathione (GSH), and lipid peroxide) were taken into account. The model enabled us to reveal differences between redox and non-redox 5-LO inhibitors under conditions of oxidative stress. Despite both redox and non-redox inhibitors suppressing leukotriene A4 (LTA4) synthesis, redox inhibitors are predicted to increase oxoETE production, thus compromising efficacy. This phenomena can be explained in terms of the pseudo-peroxidase activity of 5-LO and the ability of lipid peroxides to transform 5-LO into its active form even in the presence of redox inhibitors. CONCLUSIONS: The mathematical model developed described quantitatively different mechanisms of 5-LO inhibition and simulations revealed differences between the potential therapeutic outcomes for these mechanisms.

Integration not isolation: arguing the case for quantitative and systems pharmacology in drug discovery and development.

Quantitative and systems pharmacology (QSP) is an emerging modelling technique that combines the flexibility of systems biology and tractability of compartmental pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic modelling techniques. Historically, there has been extensive use of QSP within the field of pharmacokinetics to optimise drug biopharmaceutical properties. However, application to target and biomarker selection, and design of preclinical and clinical studies is limited, but growing rapidly. In this article we highlight the impact of QSP within drug discovery and development by citing examples from within the field of pharmacology and we argue for a more systematic integration of QSP within the drug discovery and development paradigm.

Inhalation by design: novel tertiary amine muscarinic M3 receptor antagonists with slow off-rate binding kinetics for inhaled once-daily treatment of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.

A novel tertiary amine series of potent muscarinic M(3) receptor antagonists are described that exhibit potential as inhaled long-acting bronchodilators for the treatment of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Geminal dimethyl functionality present in this series of compounds confers very long dissociative half-life (slow off-rate) from the M(3) receptor that mediates very long-lasting smooth muscle relaxation in guinea pig tracheal strips. Optimization of pharmacokinetic properties was achieved by combining rapid oxidative clearance with targeted introduction of a phenolic moiety to secure rapid glucuronidation. Together, these attributes minimize systemic exposure following inhalation, mitigate potential drug-drug interactions, and reduce systemically mediated adverse events. Compound 47 (PF-3635659) is identified as a Phase II clinical candidate from this series with in vivo duration of action studies confirming its potential for once-daily use in humans.

Mathematical analysis of the pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic (PKPD) behaviour of monoclonal antibodies: predicting in vivo potency.

We consider the relationship between the target affinity of a monoclonal antibody and its in vivo potency. The dynamics of the system is described mathematically by a target-mediated drug disposition model. As a measure of potency, we consider the minimum level of the free receptor following a single bolus injection of the ligand into the plasma compartment. From the differential equations, we derive two expressions for this minimum level in terms of the parameters of the problem, one of which is valid over the full range of values of the equilibrium dissociation constant K(D) and the other which is valid only for a large drug dose or for a small value of K(D). Both of these formulae show that the potency achieved by increasing the association constant k(on) can be very different from the potency achieved by decreasing the dissociation constant k(off). In particular, there is a saturation effect when decreasing k(off) where the increase in potency that can be achieved is limited, whereas there is no such effect when increasing k(on). Thus, for certain monoclonal antibodies, an increase in potency may be better achieved by increasing k(on) than by decreasing k(off).

Investigation of the effects of altered receptor binding activity on the clearance of erythropoiesis-stimulating proteins: Nonerythropoietin receptor-mediated pathways may play a major role.

Erythropoietin (EPO) receptor-mediated endocytosis and degradation in the bone marrow has been hypothesized to be the major clearance pathway of erythropoiesis-stimulating agents (ESA). We investigated the role of this pathway in ESA clearance by determining the pharmacokinetic profiles after intravenous (IV) dosing in rats and mice of recombinant human EPO (rHuEPO) and rHuEPO derivatives with different receptor binding activities and biochemical properties. These derivatives included NM385 (no detectable receptor binding activity), hyperglycosylated analogs with different carbohydrate contents and receptor binding activities; (NM294: +1 carbohydrate chain; darbepoetin alfa: +2 carbohydrate chains) and polyethylene glycol (PEG) derivatives (PEG-darbepoetin alfa, PEG-rHuEPO and PEG-NM385). After IV administration in rats, NM385 had a mean clearance (CL) similar to rHuEPO. Hyperglycosylated ESAs, compared with rHuEPO, had a progressively longer half-life (t(1/2)) and a progressively slower CL with increasing number of carbohydrates or amount of added PEG that correlated more closely with carbohydrate and/or PEG content than receptor binding activity. Taken together, these results suggest that (1) EPO receptor-independent pathway(s) play a substantial role in ESA clearance; (2) the longer half-life and reduced clearance of hyperglycosylated and/or PEGylated ESAs are primarily the result of decreased susceptibility to receptor-independent elimination mechanisms.

Use of pharmacokinetic/ pharmacodynamic modelling for starting dose selection in first-in-human trials of high-risk biologics.

WHAT IS ALREADY KNOWN ABOUT THIS SUBJECT: Recent regulatory guidance has highlighted the importance of using pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic (PK-PD) modelling in the selection of starting doses in first-in-human trials of high-risk biologics. However, limited examples exist in literature illustrating this procedure. WHAT THIS STUDY ADDS: An interpretation of the recommended dose-selection methodology and the minimum anticipated biological effect level (MABEL) principle, contained in the updated European Medicines Agency guidance on risk-mitigation strategies for first-in-human studies, is presented. Some literature and simulation-based examples of the application of PK-PD modelling principles to starting dose selection using in vitro and in vivo data under the MABEL paradigm are highlighted, along with the advantages and limitations of this approach. AIMS: To illustrate the use of pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic (PK-PD) models to select rational starting doses in clinical trials within the minimum anticipated biological effect level (MABEL) principle using literature data and through simulations. METHODS: The new European Medicines Agency guidance on starting dose selection of high-risk biologics was analysed considering the basic pharmacological properties and preclinical testing limitations of many biologics. The MABEL approach to dose selection was illustrated through simulations and through literature-reported examples on the selection of starting doses for biologics such as antibodies based on in vitro biomarker data, in vivo PK and PK-PD data. RESULTS: Literature reports indicating the use of preclinical pharmacological and toxicological data to select successfully safe starting doses in line with the MABEL principle are summarized. PK-PD model-based simulations of receptor occupancy for an anti-IgE antibody system indicate that the relative abundance of IgE in animal models and patients and the turnover rate of the IgE-antibody complex relative to the off-rate of the antibody from IgE are important determinants of in vivo receptor occupancy. CONCLUSIONS: Mechanistic PK-PD models are capable of integrating preclinical in vitro and in vivo data to select starting doses rationally in first-in-human trials. Biological drug-receptor interaction dynamics is complex and multiple factors affect the dose-receptor occupancy relationship. Thus, these factors should be taken into account when selecting starting doses.

A non-parametric method to analyse time-course of effect in the absence of pharmacokinetic data: application to inhaled bronchodilators.

In spite of the extensive use of long-acting beta(2)-agonist (LABA) bronchodilators in asthma, the actual mechanism of their in vivo duration of action is not well understood, primarily due to limitations of standard pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic (PKPD) analysis methodologies. We have developed a novel method of analysing lung efficacy vs. time profiles for LABAs that can be used to provide comparative information on the lung PK. We hypothesised that for compounds that do not differ in their PK at the site of PD action, but differ in their in vivo potencies, the relationship between the area under the effect curve (AUEC) and the observed maximum effect (OME) at different doses is described by the same sigmoid curve. We have illustrated this property for standard PKPD models by obtaining analytical solution and through simulations. Anaesthetised dog in vivo effect vs. time profiles were gathered for six inhaled LABA candidates that differ in their in vitro potencies. Neither lung nor systemic PK was available for any compound. Analysis of the AUEC vs. OME data, derived from the efficacy profiles, using nonlinear mixed effects modelling indicated that for four compounds, the observed differences in in vivo duration of action was due to differences in their in vivo potencies and not because of lung PK differences. Therefore, it was concluded that for these compounds, characterisation of lung PK was unlikely to differentiate their PKPD characteristics. Thus, the proposed approach helped focus resources during translational research leading to lead candidate selection.