Morphometric dataset of Varanus salvator for non-invasive sex identification using machine learning.

Reliable sex identification in Varanus salvator traditionally relied on invasive methods like genetic analysis or dissection, as less invasive techniques such as hemipenes inversion are unreliable. Given the ecological importance of this species and skewed sex ratios in disturbed habitats, a dataset that allows ecologists or zoologists to study the sex determination of the lizard is crucial. We present a new dataset containing morphometric measurements of V. salvator individuals from the skin trade, with sex confirmed by dissection post- measurement. The dataset consists of a mixture of primary and secondary data such as weight, skull size, tail length, condition etc. and can be used in modelling studies for ecological and conservation research to monitor the sex ratio of this species. Validity was demonstrated by training and testing six machine learning models. This dataset has the potential to streamline sex determination, offering a non-invasive alternative to complement existing methods in V. salvator research, mitigating the need for invasive procedures.

Efficacy of cholecalciferol rodenticide to control wood rat, Rattus tiomanicus and its secondary poisoning impact towards barn owl, Tyto javanica javanica.

Studies were conducted on the potential use of cholecalciferol as an alternative to anticoagulant rodenticides to control common rat pest in oil palm plantations, i.e., wood rats, Rattus tiomanicus, and the secondary poisoning impact of cholecalciferol on barn owls, Tyto javanica javanica. The laboratory efficacy of cholecalciferol (0.075% a.i.) was compared with commonly used first-generation anticoagulant rodenticides (FGARs): chlorophacinone (0.005% a.i) and warfarin (0.05% a.i). The 6-day wild wood rat laboratory feeding trial showed cholecalciferol baits had the highest mortality rate at 71.39%. Similarly, the FGAR chlorophacinone recorded a mortality rate of 74.20%, while warfarin baits recorded the lowest mortality rate at 46.07%. The days-to-death of rat samples was in range of 6-8 days. The highest daily consumption of bait by rat samples was recorded for warfarin at 5.85 ± 1.34 g per day while the lowest was recorded in rat samples fed cholecalciferol, i.e., 3.03 ± 0.17 g per day. Chlorophacinone-treated and control rat samples recorded consumption of about 5 g per day. A secondary poisoning assessment on barn owls in captivity fed with cholecalciferol-poisoned rats showed after 7 days of alternate feeding, the barn owls appeared to remain healthy. All the barn owls fed with cholecalciferol-poisoned rats survived the 7-day alternate feeding test and throughout the study, up to 6 months after exposure. All the barn owls did not show any abnormal behavior or physical change. The barn owls were observed to be as healthy as the barn owls from the control group throughout the study.

Parentage Assignment Using Microsatellites Reveals Multiple Mating in Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae): Implications for Mating Dynamics.

The mosquito Aedes aegypti is the primary vector of the dengue, yellow fever, and chikungunya viruses. Evidence shows that Ae. aegypti males are polyandrous whereas Ae. aegypti females are monandrous in mating. However, the degree to which Ae. aegypti males and females can mate with different partners has not been rigorously tested. Therefore, this study examined the rates of polyandry via parentage assignment in three sets of competitive mating experiments using wild-type male and female Ae. aegypti. Parentage assignment was monitored using nine microsatellite DNA markers. All Ae. aegypti offspring were successfully assigned to parents with 80% or 95% confidence using CERVUS software. The results showed that both male and female Ae. aegypti mated with up to 3-4 different partners. Adults contributed differentially to the emergent offspring, with reproductive outputs ranging from 1 to 25 viable progeny. This study demonstrates a new perspective on the capabilities of male and female Ae. aegypti in mating. These findings are significant because successful deployment of reproductive control methods using genetic modification or sterile Ae. aegypti must consider the following criteria regarding their mating fitness: 1) choosing Ae. aegypti males that can mate with many different females; 2) testing how transformed Ae. aegypti male perform with polyandrous females; and 3) prioritizing the selection of polyandrous males and/or females Ae. aegypti that have the most offspring.

Courtship activity, copulation & insemination success in a mosquito vector fed a herbal aphrodisiac: Implications for sterile insect technology.

BACKGROUND & OBJECTIVES: In sterile insect technology (SIT), mating competitiveness is a pre-condition for the reduction of target pest populations and a crucial parameter for judging efficacy. Still, current SIT trials are being hindered by decreased effectiveness due to reduced sexual performance of released males. Here, we explored the possible role of a herbal aphrodisiac in boosting the mating activity of Aedes aegypti. METHODS: Males were fed one of two diets in this study: experimental extract of Eurycoma longifolia (MSAs) and sugar only (MSOs). Differences in life span, courtship latency, copulation activity and mating success were examined between the two groups. RESULTS: No deaths occurred among MSA and MSO males. Life span of MSOs was similar to that of MSAs. The courtship latency of MSAs was shorter than that of MSOs (P<0.01). MSAs had greater copulation success than MSOs (P<0.001). In all female treatments, MSAs mated more than MSOs, but the differences in rate were significant only in the highest female density (P<0.05). In MSAs, mating success varied significantly with female density (P<0.01), with the 20-female group (P<0.01) having the lowest rate. Single MSA had better mating success at the two lowest female densities. In MSOs, there were no significant differences in mating success rate between the different female densities. INTERPRETATION & CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggested that the herbal aphrodisiac, E. longifolia, stimulated the sexual activity of Ae. aegypti and may be useful for improving the mating competitiveness of sterile males, thus improving SIT programmes.

Co-breeding Association of Aedes albopictus (Skuse) and Aedes aegypti (Linnaeus) (Diptera: Culicidae) in Relation to Location and Container Size.

The occurrence of major outbreaks of dengue, and other vector borne diseases such as chikungunya and zika in tropical and subtropical regions has rendered control of the diseases a top-priority for many affected countries including Malaysia. Control of the mosquito vectors Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus through the reduction of breeding sites and the application of insecticides to kill immature forms and adults are the main control efforts to combat these diseases. The present study describes the association between Ae. albopictus and Ae. aegypti in shared breeding sites. This study is important given that any measure taken against one species may affect the other. A yearlong larval survey was conducted in four dengue endemic areas of Penang Island. Sorenson's coefficient index indicated that no association between number of the immatures of the two species regardless of container size and study location. Therefore, the mean number Ae. albopictus immature was not decreased in the presence of Ae. aegypti in shared breeding container. However Ae. aegypti appeared to prefer breeding in habitats not occupied by Ae. albopictus, the two species sharing breeding sites only where available containers were limited. In control efforts, eliminating the preferred breeding containers for one species might not affect or reduce the population of the other species.

Temporal and spatial trends in insecticide resistance in Anopheles arabiensis in Sudan: outcomes from an evaluation of implications of insecticide resistance for malaria vector control.

BACKGROUND: Long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLINs) (with pyrethroids) and indoor residual spraying (IRS) are the cornerstones of the Sudanese malaria control program. Insecticide resistance to the principal insecticides in LLINs and IRS is a major concern. This study was designed to monitor insecticide resistance in Anopheles arabiensis from 140 clusters in four malaria-endemic areas of Sudan from 2011 to 2014. All clusters received LLINs, while half (n = 70), distributed across the four regions, had additional IRS campaigns. METHODS: Anopheles gambiae (s.l.) mosquitoes were identified to species level using PCR techniques. Standard WHO insecticide susceptibility bioassays were carried out to detect resistance to deltamethrin (0.05%), DDT (4%) and bendiocarb (0.1%). TaqMan assays were performed on random samples of deltamethrin-resistant phenotyped and pyrethrum spray collected individuals to determine Vgsc-1014 knockdown resistance mutations. RESULTS: Anopheles arabiensis accounted for 99.9% of any anopheline species collected across all sites. Bioassay screening indicated that mosquitoes remained susceptible to bendiocarb but were resistance to deltamethrin and DDT in all areas. There were significant increases in deltamethrin resistance over the four years, with overall mean percent mortality to deltamethrin declining from 81.0% (95% CI: 77.6-84.3%) in 2011 to 47.7% (95% CI: 43.5-51.8%) in 2014. The rate of increase in phenotypic deltamethrin-resistance was significantly slower in the LLIN + IRS arm than in the LLIN-only arm (Odds ratio 1.34; 95% CI: 1.02-1.77). The frequency of Vgsc-1014F mutation varied spatiotemporally with highest frequencies in Galabat (range 0.375-0.616) and New Halfa (range 0.241-0.447). Deltamethrin phenotypic-resistance correlated with Vgsc-1014F frequency. CONCLUSION: Combining LLIN and IRS, with different classes of insecticide, may delay pyrethroid resistance development, but the speed at which resistance develops may be area-specific. Continued monitoring is vital to ensure optimal management and control.

Effects of temephos resistance on life history traits of Aedes albopictus (Skuse) (Diptera: Culicidae), a vector of arboviruses

Abstract The effects of temephos resistance on the fitness cost of the wild populations of Aedes albopictus was evaluated. The larvae of two wild populations were exposed to the diagnostic dose of 0.02 mg and 0.012 mg/L. The larvae which survived after the 24 h exposure to diagnostic dose were considered as resistant and F1 generations were chosen for the comparisons of fitness parameters with the control strain, which includes larval developmental time, adult longevity, fecundity, wing length and hatchability. We found that temephos resistance had negative effects on larval developmental time which was longer for Gelugor strain among the populations with the median range of 10 days and a shorter longevity was observed with the median range of 13 days for males and 16 days for females. Whereas, an effective reduction of 29.8 and 38.6% was observed in fertility and fecundity of Gelugor strain as compared to control strain. In contrast, no clear differences were found in biological parameters of Balik Palau and USM strain, except fecundity and fertility with a reduction of 13.4 and 15.5%, respectively. Whereas, no significant differences were seen in the wing size between the populations with the mean length (mm) of 2.40 for Gelugor, 2.44 for Balik Palau and 2.46 for USM control (p > 0.05). Present results indicated that the temephos resistance is associated with the developmental and reproduction potential of resistant population of A. albopictus and the fitness has been compromised.

The Genetic Diversity, Haplotype Analysis, and Phylogenetic Relationship of Aedes albopictus (Diptera: Culicidae) Based on the Cytochrome Oxidase 1 Marker: A Malaysian Scenario.

The global expansion of Ae. albopictus from its native range in Southeast Asia has been implicated in the recent emergence of dengue endemicity in Malaysia. Genetic variability studies of Ae. albopictus are currently lacking in the Malaysian setting, yet are crucial to enhancing the existing vector control strategies. The study was conducted to establish the genetic variability of maternally inherited mitochondrial DNA encoding for cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 (CO1) gene in Ae. albopictus. Twelve localities were selected in the Subang Jaya district based on temporal indices utilizing 120 mosquito samples. Genetic polymorphism and phylogenetic analysis were conducted to unveil the genetic variability and geographic origins of Ae. albopictus. The haplotype network was mapped to determine the genealogical relationship of sequences among groups of population in the Asian region. Comparison of Malaysian CO1 sequences with sequences derived from five Asian countries revealed genetically distinct Ae. albopictus populations. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that all sequences from other Asian countries descended from the same genetic lineage as the Malaysian sequences. Noteworthy, our study highlights the discovery of 20 novel haplotypes within the Malaysian population which to date had not been reported. These findings could help determine the genetic variation of this invasive species, which in turn could possibly improve the current dengue vector surveillance strategies, locally and regionally.

Anti-oviposition activities of used sock media against a dengue vector: prospects of eco-friendly control and solutions to pollution.

Yearly, huge amounts of sock refuse are discarded into the environment. Socks contain many molecules, and worn ones, which are rich in smell-causing bacteria, have a strong influence on animals' behaviors. But the impacts of sock odor on the oviposition behavior of dengue vectors are unknown. We assessed whether Aedes albopictus changes its oviposition activity in response to the presence of used socks extract (USEx) in potential breeding grounds, using choice and no-choice bioassays (NCB). When furnished even chances to oviposit in two sites holding USEx and two others containing water (control), Ae. albopictus deposited significantly less eggs in USEx than in water sites. A similar pattern of oviposition preference was also observed when there were more oviposition options in water. When there were greater oviposition opportunities in USEx sites, Ae. albopictus oviposited preferentially in water. Females laid significantly more eggs during the NCB involving water than USEx. Also, significantly more mature eggs were retained by females in the NCB with USEx than in that with water. These observations strongly suggest the presence of molecules with either repellent or deterrent activities against Ae. albopictus females and provide an impetus to advocate the integration of used socks in dengue control programs. Such applications could be a realistic end-of-life recourse to reroute this waste from landfills.

Coffee, its roasted form, and their residues cause birth failure and shorten lifespan in dengue vectors.

In dengue mosquitoes, successful embryonic development and long lifespan are key determinants for the persistence of both virus and vector. Therefore, targeting the egg stage and vector lifespan would be expected to have greater impacts than larvicides or adulticides, both strategies that have lost effectiveness due to the development of resistance. Therefore, there is now a pressing need to find novel chemical means of vector control. Coffee contains many chemicals, and its waste, which has become a growing environmental concern, is as rich in toxicants as the green coffee beans; these chemicals do not have a history of resistance in insects, but some are lost in the roasting process. We examined whether exposure to coffee during embryonic development could alter larval eclosion and lifespan of dengue vectors. A series of bioassays with different coffee forms and their residues indicated that larval eclosion responses of Aedes albopictus and Ae. aegypti were appreciably lower when embryonic maturation occurred in environments containing coffee, especially roasted coffee crude extract (RCC). In addition, the lifespan of adults derived from eggs that hatched successfully in a coffee milieu was reduced, but this effect was less pronounced with roasted and green coffee extracts (RCU and GCU, respectively). Taken together, these findings suggested that coffee and its residues have embryocidal activities with impacts that are carried over onto the adult lifespan of dengue vectors. These effects may significantly reduce the vectorial capacity of these insects. Reutilizing coffee waste in vector control may also represent a realistic solution to the issues associated with its pollution.

Sweet waste extract uptake by a mosquito vector: Survival, biting, fecundity responses, and potential epidemiological significance.

In nature, adult mosquitoes typically utilize nectar as their main energy source, but they can switch to other as yet unidentified sugary fluids. Contemporary lifestyles, with their associated unwillingness to consume leftovers and improper disposal of waste, have resulted in the disposal of huge amounts of waste into the environment. Such refuse often contains unfinished food items, many of which contain sugar and some of which can collect water from rain and generate juices. Despite evidence that mosquitoes can feed on sugar-rich suspensions, semi-liquids, and decaying fruits, which can be abundant in garbage sites, the impacts of sweet waste fluids on dengue vectors are unknown. Here, we investigated the effects of extracts from some familiar sweet home waste items on key components of vectorial capacity of Aedes aegypti. Adult mosquitoes were fed one of five diets in this study: water (WAT); sucrose (SUG); bakery product (remnant of chocolate cake, BAK); dairy product (yogurt, YOG); and fruit (banana (BAN). Differences in survival, response time to host, and egg production were examined between groups. For both males and females, maintenance on BAK extract resulted in marked survival levels that were similar to those seen with SUG. Sweet waste extracts provided better substrates for survival compared to water, but this superiority was mostly seen with BAK. Females maintained on BAK, YOG, and BAN exhibited shorter response times to a host compared to their counterparts maintained on SUG. The levels of egg production were equivalent in waste extract- and SUG-fed females. The findings presented here illustrate the potential of sweet waste-derived fluids to contribute to the vectorial capacity of dengue vectors and suggest the necessity of readdressing the issue of waste disposal, especially that of unfinished sweet foods. Such approaches can be particularly relevant in dengue endemic areas where rainfall is frequent and waste collection infrequent.

Exposure of a Dengue Vector to Tea and Its Waste: Survival, Developmental Consequences, and Significance for Pest Management.

Dengue mosquitoes are evolving into a broader global public health menace, with relentless outbreaks and the rise in number of Zika virus disease cases as reminders of the continued hazard associated with Aedes vectors. The use of chemical insecticides-the principal strategy against mosquito vectors-has been greatly impeded due to the development of insecticide resistance and the shrinking spectrum of effective agents. Therefore, there is a pressing need for new chemistries for vector control. Tea contains hundreds of chemicals, and its waste, which has become a growing global environmental problem, is almost as rich in toxicants as green leaves. This paper presents the toxic and sublethal effects of different crude extracts of tea on Aedes albopictus. The survival rates of larvae exposed to tea extracts, especially fresh tea extract (FTE), were markedly lower than those in the control treatment group. In addition to this immediate toxicity against different developmental stages, the extracts tested caused a broad range of sublethal effects. The developmental time was clearly longer in containers with tea, especially in those with young larvae (YL) and FTE. Among the survivors, pupation success was reduced in containers with tea, which also produced low adult emergence rates with increasing tea concentration. The production of eggs tended to be reduced in females derived from the tea treatment groups. These indirect effects of tea extracts on Ae. albopictus exhibited different patterns according to the exposed larval stage. Taken together, these findings indicate that tea and its waste affect most key components of Ae. albopictus vectorial capacity and may be useful for dengue control. Reusing tea waste in vector control could also be a practical solution to the problems associated with its pollution.

Age-Stage, Two-Sex Life Table Characteristics of Aedes albopictus and Aedes Aegypti in Penang Island, Malaysia.

The life table developmental attributes of laboratory colonies of wild strains of Aedes albopictus and Aedes aegypti were analyzed and compared based on the age-stage, two-sex life table. Findings inclusive in this study are: adult preoviposition periods, total preoviposition period, mean intrinsic rate of increase (r), mean finite rate of increase (λ), net reproductive rates (R0), and mean generation time (T). The total preadult development time was 9.47 days for Ae. albopictus and 8.76 days for Ae. aegypti. The life expectancy was 19.01 days for Ae. albopictus and 19.94 days for Ae. aegypti. Mortality occurred mostly during the adult stage. The mean development time for each stage insignificantly correlated with temperature for Ae. albopictus (r  =  -0.208, P > 0.05) and (r  =  -0.312, P > 0.05) for Ae. aegypti. The population parameters suggest that Ae. albopictus and Ae. aegypti populations are r-strategists characterized by a high r, a large R0, and short T. This present study provides the first report to compare the life parameters of Ae. albopictus and Ae. aegypti strains from Penang island, Malaysia.

Life History of Thalerosphyrus (Ephemeroptera: Heptageniidae) in Tropical Rivers with Reference to the Varying Altitude.

The life history and the influence of environmental parameters on Thalerosphyrus were investigated in two first-order rivers-the Batu Hampar River and the Teroi River of Gunung Jerai, Kedah-in northern peninsular Malaysia. Based on nymphal body length, Thalerosphyrus was found to be trivoltine in both rivers, regardless of the altitudinal difference, but its population abundance was four times higher in the Teroi River, presumably related to its better survival in the lower water temperature. At least nine instars of Thalerosphyrus were detected in the field-collected nymphs. Its life cycle was completed within 2.5-3.0 months, with overlapping cohorts and continual emergence of up to 3 months. The main driving factors of the high abundance of Thalerosphyrus were the water temperature and habitat quality.

Genetic Polymorphism of Aedes albopictus Population Inferred From ND5 Gene Variabilities In Subang Jaya, Malaysia.

This study was performed to establish the genetic variability of Aedes albopictus within Subang Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia, by using the nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide dehydrogenase 5 subunit (ND5) mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) marker. A total of 90 samples were collected from 9 localities within an area of the Subang Jaya Municipality. Genetic variability was determined through the amplification and sequencing of a fragment of the ND5 gene. Eight distinct mtDNA haplotypes were identified. The evolutionary relationship of the local haplotypes alongside 28 reference strains was used to construct a phylogram, the analysis of which revealed low genetic differentiation in terms of both nucleotide and haplotype diversity. Bayesian method was used to infer the phylogenetic tree, revealing a unique relationship between local isolates. The study corroborates the reliability of ND5 to identify distinct lineages for polymorphism-based studies and supplements the existing body of knowledge regarding its genetic diversity. This in turn could potentially aid existing vector control strategies to help mitigate the risk and spread of the dengue virus.

Mitochondrial Cytochrome Oxidase I Gene Sequence Analysis of Aedes Albopictus in Malaysia.

A study was conducted to establish polymorphic variation of the mitochondrial DNA encoding the cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 (CO1) gene in Aedes albopictus isolated from 2 hot spot dengue-infested areas in the Subang Jaya District, Malaysia. A phylogenetic analysis was performed with the use of sequences obtained from USJ6 and Taman Subang Mas (TSM). Comparison of the local CO1 sequences with a laboratory strain (USM), alongside reference strains derived from the GenBank database revealed low genetic variation in terms of nucleotide differences and haplotype diversity. Four methods were used to construct a phylogenetic tree and illustrate the genetic relationship of the 37 Ae. albopictus populations based on the CO1 sequences, namely neighbor-joining (NJ), maximum parsimony (MP), maximum likelihood (ML), and Bayesian method, which revealed a distinct relationship between isolates from USJ6 and TSM. Our findings provide new information regarding the genetic diversity among morphologically similar Ae. albopictus, which has not been reported to date.

Efficacy of Insecticide and Bioinsecticide Ground Sprays to Control Metisa plana Walker (Lepidoptera: Psychidae) in Oil Palm Plantations, Malaysia.

The effectiveness of the synthetic insecticides trichlorfon, lambda-cyhalothrin, cypermethrin emulsion concentrated (EC) and cypermethrin emulsion water based (EW) and a bio-insecticide, Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. kurstaki (Btk), was evaluated at 3, 7, 14 and 30 days after treatment (DAT) for the control of Metisa plana larvae in an oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) plantation in Malaysia. Although all synthetic insecticides effectively reduced the larval population of M. plana, trichlorfon, lambda-cyhalothrin and cypermethrin EC were the fastest-acting. The larval population dropped below the economic threshold level (ETL) 30 days after a single application of the synthetic insecticides. Application of Btk, however, gave poor results, with the larval population remaining above the ETL post treatment. In terms of operational productivity, ground spraying using power spray equipment was time-consuming and resulted in poor coverage. Power spraying may not be appropriate for controlling M. plana infestations in large fields. Using a power sprayer, one man could cover 2-3 ha per day. Hence, power spraying is recommended during outbreaks of infestation in areas smaller than 50 ha.

Oviposition deterring and oviciding potentials of Ipomoea cairica L. leaf extract against dengue vectors.

Bioprospecting of plant-based insecticides for vector control has become an area of interest within the last two decades. Due to drawbacks of chemical insecticides, phytochemicals of plant origin with mosquito control potential are being utilized as alternative sources in integrated vector control. In this regard, the present study aimed to investigate oviposition deterring and oviciding potentials of Ipomoea cairica (L.) (Family: Convolvulaceae) crude leaf extract against dengue vectors, Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus. Ipomoea cairica is an indigenous plant that has demonstrated marked toxicity towards larvae of Ae. aegypti and Ae. albopictus. Leaves of I. cairica were extracted using Soxhlet apparatus with acetone as solvent. Oviposition deterrent activity and ovicidal assay was carried out in oviposition site choice tests with three different concentrations (50, 100, 450 ppm). Acetone extract of I. cairica leaf strongly inhibited oviposition with 100% repellence to Ae. aegypti at lower concentration of 100 ppm, while for Ae. albopictus was at 450 ppm. The oviposition activity index (OAI) values which ranged from -0.69 to -1.00 revealed that I. cairica demonstrated deterrent effect. In ovicidal assay, similar trend was observed whereby zero hatchability was recorded for Ae. aegypti and Ae. albopictus eggs at 100 and 450 ppm, respectively. It is noteworthy that I. cairica leaf extract had significantly elicited dual properties as oviposition deterrent and oviciding agent in both Aedes species. Reduction in egg number through oviposition deterring activity, reduction in hatching percentage and survival rates, suggested an additional hallmark of this plant to be integrated in Aedes mosquito control. Ipomoea cairica deserved to be considered as one of the potential alternative sources for the new development of novel plant based insecticides in future.

Assessment of residual bio-efficacy and persistence of Ipomoea cairica plant extract against Culex quinquefasciatus Say mosquito.

Specification on residual action of a possible alternative insecticide derived from plant materials is important to determine minimum interval time between applications and the environmental persistence of the biopesticides. The objective of this study is to evaluate crude acethonilic extract of Ipomoea cairica leaves for its residual and persistence effects against Culex quinquefasciatus larvae. Wild strain of Cx. quinquefasciatus larvae were used for the purpose of the study. Two test designs, replenishment of water and without replenishment of water were carried out. For the first design, a total of 10 ml of test solution containing Ip. cairica extracts was replenished daily and replaced with 10 ml of distilled water. For the second design, treatment water was maintained at 1500 ml and only evaporated water was refilled. Larval mortality was recorded at 24 hours post-treatment after each introduction period and trials were terminated when mortality rate falls below 50%. Adult emergences from survived larvae were observed and number of survivals was recorded. For the non-replenishment design, mortality rate significantly reduced to below 50% after 28 days, meanwhile for replenishment of water declined significantly after 21 days (P < 0.05). There was no adult emergence observed up to seven days for non-replenishment and first two days for replenishment of water design. The short period of residual effectiveness of crude acethonilic extract of Ip. cairica leaves with high percentage of larval mortality on the first few days, endorses fewer concerns of having excess residues in the environment which may carry the risk of insecticide resistance and environmental pollution.

Promoting health education and public awareness about dengue and its mosquito vector in Saudi Arabia.

Currently, dengue fever is considered as the main health problem in several parts (Mekkah, Jeddah, Jazan and Najran) of Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) with dramatically increase in the number of cases reported every year. This is associated with obvious ineffectiveness in the recent control and management programs for the mosquito vector (Aedes aegypti). Here, we suggested promoting the health education and public awareness among Saudi people to improve the control of dengue mosquito vector. Several suggestions and recommendations were highlighted here to ensure effectiveness in the future control and management programs of dengue mosquito vector in KSA.