Expanding ocean protection and peace: a window for science diplomacy in the Gulf.

The ecological state of the Persian or Arabian Gulf (hereafter 'Gulf') is in sharp decline. Calls for comprehensive ecosystem-based management approaches and transboundary conservation have gone largely unanswered, despite mounting marine threats made worse by climate change. The region's long-standing political tensions add additional complexity, especially now as some Gulf countries will soon adopt ambitious goals to protect their marine environments as part of new global environmental commitments. The recent interest in global commitments comes at a time when diplomatic relations among all Gulf countries are improving. There is a window of opportunity for Gulf countries to meet global marine biodiversity conservation commitments, but only if scientists engage in peer-to-peer diplomacy to build trust, share knowledge and strategize marine conservation options across boundaries. The Gulf region needs more ocean diplomacy and coordination; just as critically, it needs actors at its science-policy interface to find better ways of adapting cooperative models to fit its unique marine environment, political context and culture. We propose a practical agenda for scientist-led diplomacy in the short term and lines of research from which to draw (e.g. co-production, knowledge exchange) to better design future science diplomacy practices and processes suited to the Gulf's setting.

Degradability and biofouling of oxo-biodegradable polyethylene in the planktonic and benthic zones of the Arabian Gulf.

Little is known about the degradability of oxo-biodegradable polyethylene (OXO-PE) and its surface fouling bacterial communities in the marine environment. The degradation of OXO-PE, PE and polyethylene terephthalate (PET) was compared at two depths (2 m and 6 m) in the Arabian Gulf. Scanning electron microcopy (SEM) revealed more fissure formation on OXO-PE and PE than on PET, indicating physical degradation. The formation of hydroxyl groups and carbonyl bonds, by Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), suggests chemical degradation of OXO-PE. Plastisphere bacterial communities on OXO-PE and PE were different than on PET. Proteobacteria, Bacteriodetes and Planctomycetes were detected on all plastics, however, sequences of Alteromonas and Zoogloea were OXO-PE-specific suggesting a possible involvement of these bacterial genera in OXO-PE degradation. We conclude that OXO-PE shows increased signs of degradation with time owing to the combination of abiotic and biotic processes, and its degradation is higher in the benthic than in the planktonic zone.