Prison as a driver of recent transmissions of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis in Callao, Peru: a cross-sectional study.

Background: We sought to identify resistance patterns and key drivers of recent multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) transmission in a TB-prevalent area in Peru. Methods: Cross-sectional study including MDR Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (Mtbc) strains identified in Callao-Peru between April 2017 and February 2019. Mtbc DNA was extracted for whole genome sequencing which was used for phylogenetic inference, clustering, and resistance mutation analyses. Clusters indicative of recent transmission were defined based on a strain-to-strain distance of ≤5 (D5) single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). Epidemiologic factors linked to MDR-TB clustering were analyzed using Poisson regression. Findings: 171 unique MDR-Mtbc strains were included; 22 (13%) had additional fluoroquinolone resistance and were classified as pre-XDR. Six strains (3.5%) harboured bedaquiline (BDQ) resistance mutations and were classified as MDR + BDQ. 158 (92%) Mtbc strains belonged to lineage 4 and 13 (8%) to lineage 2. Using a cluster threshold of ≤5 SNPs, 98 (57%) strains were grouped in one of the 17 D5 clusters indicative of recent transmission, ranging in size from 2 to the largest cluster formed by 53 4.3.3 strains (group_1). Lineage 4.3.3 strains showed the overall highest cluster rate (43%). In multivariate analyses, current or previous imprisonment was independently associated with being part of any MDR-TB transmission clusters (adjusted prevalence ratio [aPR], 1.45; 95% CI, 1.09-1.92). Interpretation: Pre-XDR-TB emerged in more than 10% of the MDR-TB strains investigated. Transmission of 4.3.3 Mtbc strains especially of the dominant group_1 clone is a major driver of the MDR-TB epidemic in Callao. Current or previous imprisonment was linked to recent MDR-TB transmissions, indicating an important role of prisons in driving the MDR-TB epidemic. Funding: This work was supported in part by the ERANet-LAC Network of the European Union, Latin America and the Caribbean Countries on Joint Innovation and Research Activities, and FONDECYT. Additional support was received from Leibniz Science Campus Evolutionary Medicine of the Lung, the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (German Research Foundation, under Germany's Excellence Strategy-EXC 2167 Precision Medicine in Inflammation), and the Research Training Group 2501 TransEvo.

Optimizing a Noninvasive Oral Sampling Technique for Semicaptive Neotropical Primates in Peru.

Disease surveillance in Neotropical primates (NP) is limited by the difficulties associated with anesthetizing NP for sample collection in remote settings. Our objective was to optimize a noninvasive method of oral sampling from semicaptive NP in Peru. We offered 40 NP at Taricaya Rescue Centre in Madre de Dios, Peru ropes coated in various attractants and measured variables (acceptance of the rope, chewing time, and volume of fluid eluted from ropes) that may affect sample acquisition and quality. We preserved samples by direct freezing in liquid nitrogen or by storing samples in RNA stabilization reagent at room temperature. Sample integrity was measured by testing for mammalian cytochrome b with the use of conventional PCR. The NP successfully chewed on a rope in 82% (125/152) of trials. Overall sample integrity was high, with 96% (44/46) of samples (both directly frozen and stored in stabilization reagent) testing positive for cytochrome b. The number of times that an individual NP was exposed to the rope procedure and NP age were associated with higher acceptance rates and the NP successfully chewing on the rope. We conclude that ropes serve as a feasible noninvasive method of obtaining oral samples from NP at rescue centers and could be used in future studies to evaluate population genetics and for pathogen surveillance for population health monitoring.

[Respiratory symptoms in people attended in health facilities of the Ministry of Health in Lima, Peru]. / Sintomáticos respiratorios en personas atendidas en establecimientos de salud del Ministerio de Salud en Lima, Perú.

OBJECTIVE.: The aim of this study was to determine the percentage of symptomatic respiratory (SR) cases, according to the programmatic definition, among people who attend medical offices at first-level health facilities of the Ministry of Health in Lima under normal circumstances. The study also aims at identifying the percentage of patients with tuberculosis among the RS and among coughers over seven days. MATERIALS AND METHODS.: Cross-sectional study of patients attending consultations at 57 health centers. Patients with cough and phlegm lasting more than seven days and RS were identified and a sputum sample was taken to rule out tuberculosis by smear and culture. RESULTS.: A total of 10,421 people was surveyed. A 2.7% had cough with phlegm for ≥7 days and only 1.1% were SR; 215 patients were screened for tuberculosis. Seven (5.9%) of the RS and eight (4.8%) of the patients with a 7-14-day cough had tuberculosis. CONCLUSIONS.: The percentage of RS in the Ministry of Health's health facilities in Lima was less than the expected 5%, ranging from 0.8% in Callao to 1.5% in Lima City. The percentage of tuberculosis among coughers (lasting 7-14 days) and RS is consistent with the findings of other local studies. Consideration should be given to lowering the RS target to less than 5% and expanding tuberculosis screening to patients with cough ≥7 days at the Health Divisions with high tuberculosis incidence.

OBJETIVO.: El objetivo de este estudio fue determinar el porcentaje de sintomáticos respiratorios (SR), según la definición programática, entre las personas que en condiciones habituales acuden a consulta en los establecimientos de salud de primer nivel del Ministerio de Salud en Lima, e identificar el porcentaje de pacientes con tuberculosis entre los SR y entre tosedores de más de siete días. MATERIALES Y MÉTODOS.: Estudio transversal en pacientes que acudieron a consulta en 57 centros de salud. Se identificó a los pacientes con tos y expectoración de más de siete días y SR, a quienes se les tomó una muestra de esputo para descarte de tuberculosis mediante baciloscopía y cultivos. RESULTADOS.: Se encuestaron 10 421 personas. El 2,7% presentaron tos con expectoración por ≥7 días y solo el 1,1% fueron SR; 215 pacientes fueron examinados para descarte de tuberculosis. Siete (5,9%) de los SR y ocho (4,8%) de los pacientes con tos de 7-14 días tuvieron tuberculosis. CONCLUSIÓN.: El porcentaje de SR en establecimientos de salud del Ministerio de Salud en Lima fue menor al 5% esperado, con un rango de 0,8% en Callao hasta 1,5% en Lima Ciudad. El porcentaje de tuberculosis entre tosedores de 7-14 días y SR concuerda con el hallado en otros estudios locales. Se debe considerar la posibilidad de disminuir la meta de SR a menos del 5% y ampliar el despistaje de tuberculosis a pacientes con tos ≥7 días en las Direcciones de Salud con altas incidencias de tuberculosis.

Sintomáticos respiratorios en personas atendidas en establecimientos de salud del Ministerio de Salud en Lima, Perú / Respiratory symptoms in people attended in health facilities of the Ministry of Health in Lima, Peru

RESUMEN Objetivo. El objetivo de este estudio fue determinar el porcentaje de sintomáticos respiratorios (SR), según la definición programática, entre las personas que en condiciones habituales acuden a consulta en los establecimientos de salud de primer nivel del Ministerio de Salud en Lima, e identificar el porcentaje de pacientes con tuberculosis entre los SR y entre tosedores de más de siete días. Materiales y métodos. Estudio transversal en pacientes que acudieron a consulta en 57 centros de salud. Se identificó a los pacientes con tos y expectoración de más de siete días y SR, a quienes se les tomó una muestra de esputo para descarte de tuberculosis mediante baciloscopía y cultivos. Resultados. Se encuestaron 10 421 personas. El 2,7% presentaron tos con expectoración por ≥7 días y solo el 1,1% fueron SR; 215 pacientes fueron examinados para descarte de tuberculosis. Siete (5,9%) de los SR y ocho (4,8%) de los pacientes con tos de 7-14 días tuvieron tuberculosis. Conclusión. El porcentaje de SR en establecimientos de salud del Ministerio de Salud en Lima fue menor al 5% esperado, con un rango de 0,8% en Callao hasta 1,5% en Lima Ciudad. El porcentaje de tuberculosis entre tosedores de 7-14 días y SR concuerda con el hallado en otros estudios locales. Se debe considerar la posibilidad de disminuir la meta de SR a menos del 5% y ampliar el despistaje de tuberculosis a pacientes con tos ≥7 días en las Direcciones de Salud con altas incidencias de tuberculosis.

ABSTRACT Objective. The aim of this study was to determine the percentage of symptomatic respiratory (SR) cases, according to the programmatic definition, among people who attend medical offices at first-level health facilities of the Ministry of Health in Lima under normal circumstances. The study also aims at identifying the percentage of patients with tuberculosis among the RS and among coughers over seven days. Materials and Methods. Cross-sectional study of patients attending consultations at 57 health centers. Patients with cough and phlegm lasting more than seven days and RS were identified and a sputum sample was taken to rule out tuberculosis by smear and culture. Results. A total of 10,421 people was surveyed. A 2.7% had cough with phlegm for ≥7 days and only 1.1% were SR; 215 patients were screened for tuberculosis. Seven (5.9%) of the RS and eight (4.8%) of the patients with a 7-14-day cough had tuberculosis. Conclusions. The percentage of RS in the Ministry of Health's health facilities in Lima was less than the expected 5%, ranging from 0.8% in Callao to 1.5% in Lima City. The percentage of tuberculosis among coughers (lasting 7-14 days) and RS is consistent with the findings of other local studies. Consideration should be given to lowering the RS target to less than 5% and expanding tuberculosis screening to patients with cough ≥7 days at the Health Divisions with high tuberculosis incidence.

Epidemiología, arquitectura paisajista, «Una Salud¼ e innovación: experiencia en una comunidad amazónica / Epidemiology, landscape architecture, "One Health," and innovation: experience in an amazonian community

Este artículo hace breve referencia a los antecedentes del concepto de «Una Salud¼ en el contexto mundial y peruano, y la forma como esta perspectiva holística de salud sirvió de fundamento para la creación del Centro de Investigaciones, Tecnológicas, Biomédicas y Medioambientales (CITBM) en la Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos. Seguidamente, describe el proyecto InterACTION Labs, una de las experiencias que usa el enfoque de «Una Salud¼, liderado por el CITBM, la Universidad de Washington y Traction, esta última una organización no gubernamental enfocada en el diseño e investigación en salud y ecología. InterACTION Labs es un programa de diseño e investigación-acción transdisciplinaria (TDAR, por sus siglas en inglés) que se desarrolla en «Claverito¼, una comunidad flotante en la ciudad de Iquitos en la Amazonía peruana, y que se sustenta en la hipótesis de que el entorno construido es determinante de la salud, tanto del ser humano como de otras especies (aves, reptiles, plantas, etc.). También, discute el concepto de entorno construido en relación a la teoría y práctica de la salud pública, la arquitectura paisajista, la epidemiología y otros campos de la salud y del medio ambiente. Finalmente, reflexiona en los logros y desafíos del proyecto que comenzó en 2015, y describe el plan de trabajo para los próximos años, en los que se propone extender el programa y el uso del enfoque de «Una Salud¼ para promover la salud humana, ecológica y ambiental en el Perú y otras partes del mundo.

This article makes brief reference to the background of the "One Health" concept in the global and Peruvian context, and to the way in which this holistic health perspective served as the foundation for the creation of the Center for Technological, Biomedical, and Environmental Research (CITBM) at Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos. Additionally, it describes the InterACTION Labs project, one of the experiences using the "One Health" approach, led by CITBM, the University of Washington, and Traction, an NGO focused on design and research in health and ecology topics. InterACTION Labs is a design and transdisciplinary action-research (TDAR) program developed in "Claverito," a floating community in the city of Iquitos in the Peruvian Amazon, based on the hypothesis that the built environment is a health determinant for both humans and other species (birds, reptiles, plants, etc.). It also discusses the concept of 'built environment' as related to the theory and practice of public health, landscape architecture, epidemiology, and other health and environmental fields. Finally, it reflects on the achievements and challenges of the project that began in 2015, and describes the work plan for the coming years, with a proposal to extend the program and use the "One Health" approach to promote human, ecological, and environmental health in Peru and other parts of the world.

Evolución histórica del concepto y criterios actuales para el diagnóstico de demencia / Historical evolution of the concept and new diagnostic criteria for Dementia

A mediados del siglo XIX se empezó a enfocar el concepto de Demencia, como una entidad irreversible asociada a la edad, Esquirol fue uno de los primeros en plantear una aproximación descriptiva del cuadro clínico, y Bayle el primero en proponer Demencia como una enfermedad atribuible a lesiones en el sistema nervioso central. Fue alrededor del año 1900, que Alois Alzheimer precisó las lesiones patológicas de dos entidades clínicas distintas, la primera descrita por él mismo, y la segunda por Arnold Pick (conocidas hoy como enfermedad de Alzheimer y demencia frontotemporal respectivamente). Conforme progresaron las técnicas de imágenes cerebrales y estudios de líquido cefalo-raquídeo fueron mejorando los criterios de diagnóstico para los diversos tipos de demencia, con un enfoque clínico-biológico. Las recomendaciones más recientes, sin embargo proponen un enfoque exclusivamente biológico de la enfermedad de Alzheimer.

By the middle of the 19th Century the concept of Dementia, as an irreversible entity associated with the aging process, came into focus thanks to the work of Esquirol, who was one of the first to propose a descriptive approach to the clinical picture, and Bayle, who was the first to suggest that Dementia was an illness attributable to injuries of the Central Nervous System. Around 1900, Alois Alzheimer described the pathology of the injuries of two distinct entities, the first described by him, and the second by Arnold Pick (known today as Alzheimer´s Disease and Frontotemporal Dementia respectively). The advances in brain-imaging techniques and studies of cerebrospinal fluid led to improvements of the clinical diagnostic criteria for the diverse types of dementia, with a clinical- biological focus. Nevertheless, the most recent recommendations suggest Alzheimer´s disease to be approached from a purely biological focus.

Prevalence and Associated Characteristics of HIV-Infected Children in Latin America Who Know Their HIV Status.

We estimated the prevalence of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) disclosure in children from a prospective observational cohort study conducted at clinical sites in Brazil, Mexico, and Peru. Fewer than half of the children in this study knew their HIV status, which highlights the need for better strategies for disclosure that are age and culturally appropriate.

[Epidemiology, landscape architecture, "one health," and innovation: experience in an amazonian community]. / Epidemiología, arquitectura paisajista, "una salud" e innovación: experiencia en una comunidad amazónica.

This article makes brief reference to the background of the "One Health" concept in the global and Peruvian context, and to the way in which this holistic health perspective served as the foundation for the creation of the Center for Technological, Biomedical, and Environmental Research (CITBM) at Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos. Additionally, it describes the InterACTION Labs project, one of the experiences using the "One Health" approach, led by CITBM, the University of Washington, and Traction, an NGO focused on design and research in health and ecology topics. InterACTION Labs is a design and transdisciplinary action-research (TDAR) program developed in "Claverito," a floating community in the city of Iquitos in the Peruvian Amazon, based on the hypothesis that the built environment is a health determinant for both humans and other species (birds, reptiles, plants, etc.). It also discusses the concept of 'built environment' as related to the theory and practice of public health, landscape architecture, epidemiology, and other health and environmental fields. Finally, it reflects on the achievements and challenges of the project that began in 2015, and describes the work plan for the coming years, with a proposal to extend the program and use the "One Health" approach to promote human, ecological, and environmental health in Peru and other parts of the world.

Este artículo hace breve referencia a los antecedentes del concepto de "Una Salud" en el contexto mundial y peruano, y la forma como esta perspectiva holística de salud sirvió de fundamento para la creación del Centro de Investigaciones, Tecnológicas, Biomédicas y Medioambientales (CITBM) en la Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos. Seguidamente, describe el proyecto InterACTION Labs, una de las experiencias que usa el enfoque de "Una Salud", liderado por el CITBM, la Universidad de Washington y Traction, esta última una organización no gubernamental enfocada en el diseño e investigación en salud y ecología. InterACTION Labs es un programa de diseño e investigación-acción transdisciplinaria (TDAR, por sus siglas en inglés) que se desarrolla en "Claverito", una comunidad flotante en la ciudad de Iquitos en la Amazonía peruana, y que se sustenta en la hipótesis de que el entorno construido es determinante de la salud, tanto del ser humano como de otras especies (aves, reptiles, plantas, etc.). También, discute el concepto de entorno construido en relación a la teoría y práctica de la salud pública, la arquitectura paisajista, la epidemiología y otros campos de la salud y del medio ambiente. Finalmente, reflexiona en los logros y desafíos del proyecto que comenzó en 2015, y describe el plan de trabajo para los próximos años, en los que se propone extender el programa y el uso del enfoque de "Una Salud" para promover la salud humana, ecológica y ambiental en el Perú y otras partes del mundo.

Modelo para mejorar la anemia y el cuidado infantil en un ámbito rural del Perú / A model to improve anemia and child care in rural Peru / Um modelo para melhorar a anemia e a atenção infantil na área rural no Peru

[English]. Objetivo. Determinar la efectividad de la Estrategia para el Crecimiento y Desarrollo Integral (ECDI) de World Vision Perú sobre la anemia, desnutrición, desarrollo psicomotor y cuidado y protección infantil en niños menores de tres años de edad que residían en tres comunidades rurales de la Región Ayacucho del Perú. Métodos. Se realizó un estudio cuasiexperimental en tres distritos rurales de la región Ayacucho, Perú. La medición de anemia se realizó con sangre capilar y el analizador HemoCue®, con ajuste de los valores de hemoglobina según a la altitud. La desnutrición se midió a través de los indicadores antropométricos de talla y peso; para ello se utilizó la herramienta Anthro de la Organización Mundial de la Salud. El desarrollo psicomotor se midió mediante el Test Abreviado del Ministerio de Salud del Perú. El cuidado y protección de los niños se midió a través de una ficha especialmente elaborada para este fin. Se realizaron tres mediciones, la línea basal en mayo del 2013, la medición intermedia en noviembre del mismo año y la final en mayo del 2014. En total, 283 niños tuvieron dos o más mediciones incluida la medición final y 205 tuvieron las tres mediciones. Resultados. El análisis multivariado para medidas repetidas mostró una efectividad estimada de la ECDI para reducir la anemia de 33,1% (intervalo de confianza del 95%: 1,0%-54,7%) ajustada para la edad, sexo, consumo de alimentos ricos en hierro, consumo de alimentos potenciadores de la absorción de hierro, consumo de alimento inhibidores de la absorción de hierro, haber recibido suplementación de hierro en los últimos seis meses y haber participado del Programa Cuna Más. Conclusiones. La ECDI fue efectiva para mejorar la nutrición de los menores de 36 meses de edad a través de la reducción de la anemia y el incremento del consumo de potenciadores de la absorción de hierro. Las intervenciones que incluyen componentes educativos y de seguimiento comunitarios podrían ser de gran ayuda para combatir la anemia en los niños menores de 36 meses de edad en comunidades rurales.

[Español]. Objective. Determine the effectiveness of the Integrated Growth and Development Strategy (ECDI, Spanish acronym) of World Vision Peru on anemia, malnutrition, psychomotor development, and child care and protection in children aged <3 years living in three rural communities of Ayacucho Region, Peru. Methods. A quasi-experiment was carried out in three rural districts of Ayacucho Region, Peru. Anemia was measured using capillary blood and the HemoCue® analyzer, with hemoglobin values adjusted for altitude. Malnutrition was measured with anthropometric indicators for height and weight, using the World Health Organization’s Anthro software. Psychomotor development was measured with the Abbreviated Test of the Ministry of Health of Peru. Child care and protection was measured using a form specifically designed for this purpose. Three measurements were carried out: baseline in May 2013, midpoint in November 2013, and final in May 2014. In total, 283 children had two or more measurements including the final measurement, and 205 had all three measurements. Results. Multivariate analysis for repeated measures showed that ECDI had an estimated 33.1% effectiveness in reducing anemia (95% CI: 1.0%-54.7%), adjusted for age, sex, consumption of iron-rich foods, consumption of iron-absorption-enhancing foods, consumption of iron-absorption-inhibiting foods, having received iron supplementation in the last six months, and having participated in the Cuna Más Program. Conclusions. ECDI was effective in improving nutrition in children aged <36 months through anemia reduction and increased consumption of iron-absorption enhancers. Interventions that include educational and community monitoring components could be of great assistance to combating anemia in children aged <36 months in rural communities.

[Português]. Objetivo. Determinar a efetividade da Estratégia de Crescimento e Desenvolvimento Integral (ECDI) da World Vision Peru para anemia, desnutrição, desenvolvimento psicomotor e atenção e proteção infantis em crianças menores de 3 anos de idade em três comunidades rurais. Métodos. Foi realizado estudo quase-experimental em três distritos rurais da região de Ayacucho, no Peru. A avaliação da anemia foi realizada em sangue capilar com o uso do analisador HemoCue®, com correção dos valores de hemoglobina Segundo a altitude. A desnutrição foi avaliada segundo indicadores antropométricos de tamanho e peso, com o uso da ferramenta Anthro elaborada pela Organização Mundial da Saúde (OMS). O desenvolvimento psicomotor foi avaliado com o Teste Abreviado do Ministério da Saúde do Peru. A atenção e a proteção infantis foram avaliadas com o uso de uma ficha elaborada para esta finalidade. Foram realizadas três avaliações, com a linha de base em maio de 2013, a avaliação intermediária sendo realizada em novembro deste mesmo ano e a avaliação final, em maio de 2014. Ao todo, 283 crianças passaram por duas ou mais avaliações, incluindo a avaliação final, e 205 passaram por três avaliações. Resultados. Na análise multivariada de medidas repetidas, a efetividade estimada da ECDI de reduzir a anemia foi de 33,1% (intervalo de confiança de 95%: 1,0%-54,7%), corrigida para idade, sexo, consumo de alimentos ricos em ferro, consumo de alimentos potenciadores da absorção de ferro, consumo de alimentos inibidores da absorção de ferro, suplementação de ferro nos últimos seis meses e participação no Programa Cuna Más (programa nacional de desenvolvimento infantil). Conclusões. A ECDI demonstrou efetividade para melhorar a nutrição das crianças menores de 36 meses com a redução da anemia e o aumento do consumo de potenciadores da absorção de ferro. Intervenções com componentes educacionais e acompanhamento comunitário podem contribuir consideravelmente para combater a anemia em crianças menores de 36 meses em comunidades rurais.

Altered Natural Killer Cell Function in HIV-Exposed Uninfected Infants.

OBJECTIVES: HIV-exposed uninfected (HEU) infants have higher rates of severe and fatal infections compared with HIV-unexposed (HUU) infants, likely due to immune perturbations. We hypothesized that alterations in natural killer (NK) cell activity might occur in HEU infants and predispose them to severe infections. DESIGN: Case-control study using cryopreserved peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) at birth and 6 months from HEU infants enrolled from 2002 to 2009 and HUU infants enrolled from 2011 to 2013. METHODS: NK cell phenotype and function were assessed by flow cytometry after 20-h incubation with and without K562 cells. RESULTS: The proportion of NK cells among PBMCs was lower at birth in 12 HEU vs. 22 HUU (1.68 vs. 10.30%, p < 0.0001) and at 6 months in 52 HEU vs. 72 HUU (3.09 vs. 4.65%, p = 0.0005). At birth, HEU NK cells demonstrated increased killing of K562 target cells (p < 0.0001) and increased expression of CD107a (21.65 vs. 12.70%, p = 0.047), but these differences resolved by 6 months. Stimulated HEU NK cells produced less interferon (IFN)γ at birth (0.77 vs. 2.64%, p = 0.008) and at 6 months (4.12 vs. 8.39%, p = 0.001), and showed reduced perforin staining at 6 months (66.95 vs. 77.30%, p = 0.0008). Analysis of cell culture supernatants indicated that lower NK cell activity in HEU was associated with reduced interleukin (IL)-12, IL-15, and IL-18. Addition of recombinant human IL-12 to stimulated HEU PBMCs restored IFNγ production to that seen in stimulated HUU cultures. CONCLUSION: NK cell proportion, phenotype, and function are altered in HEU infants. NK cell cytotoxicity and degranulation are increased in HEU at birth, but HEU NK cells have reduced IFNγ and perforin production, suggesting an adequate initial response, but decreased functional reserve. NK cell function improved with addition of exogenous IL-12, implicating impaired production of IL-12 by accessory cells. Alterations in NK cell and accessory cell function may contribute to the increased susceptibility to infection in HEU infants.

High prevalence of cardiovascular risk factors in Peruvian adolescents living in a peri-urban shantytown: a cross-sectional study.

BACKGROUND: Adults of the peri-urban Peruvian shantytown of Lomas de Zapallal have a high prevalence of risk factors for developing cardiovascular disease (CVD)-likely due to behavioral choices established during childhood and adolescence. To guide the development of community-based risk reduction programs, we assessed the prevalence of risk factors for developing CVD among adolescents. METHODS: We collected cross sectional data from adolescents of Peruvian peri-urban shantytown to evaluate four domains of CVD risk factors: (1) clinical (blood pressure, fasting blood glucose, and blood lipids), (2) anthropometric (height, weight, and waist circumference), (3) behavioral (physical activity, diet, and substance abuse), and (4) psychosocial (mental health and violence). RESULTS: We enrolled 275 adolescents (56.4% female, mean age 14 years). Prevalence of overweight or obese status was 27.8%. High blood pressure was more common in males (37.4%) than females (20.5%) (p = 0.002). Total cholesterol was elevated (>170 mg/dL) in nearly half (45.5%) of the adolescents, and 71% had impaired fasting blood glucose (>100 mg/dL). Females were less likely to exercise daily (95.4%) than males (84.2%) (p = 0.002) but reported higher rates of depression (66.4%), anhedonia (67.6%), and self-harm behavior (37.9%) (all p < 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: Adolescents living in the peri-urban population of Puente Piedra had high prevalence of risk factors for future development of CVD; preventative efforts focused on improving nutrition, increasing physical inactivity, and addressing mental health conditions could reduce such risk factors.

[A model to improve anemia and child care in rural PeruUm modelo para melhorar a anemia e a atenção infantil na área rural no Peru]. / Modelo para mejorar la anemia y el cuidado infantil en un ámbito rural del Perú.

OBJECTIVE: Determine the effectiveness of the Integrated Growth and Development Strategy (ECDI, Spanish acronym) of World Vision Peru on anemia, malnutrition, psychomotor development, and child care and protection in children aged <3 years living in three rural communities of Ayacucho Region, Peru. METHODS: A quasi-experiment was carried out in three rural districts of Ayacucho Region, Peru. Anemia was measured using capillary blood and the HemoCue® analyzer, with hemoglobin values adjusted for altitude. Malnutrition was measured with anthropometric indicators for height and weight, using the World Health Organization's Anthro software. Psychomotor development was measured with the Abbreviated Test of the Ministry of Health of Peru. Child care and protection was measured using a form specifically designed for this purpose. Three measurements were carried out: baseline in May 2013, midpoint in November 2013, and final in May 2014. In total, 283 children had two or more measurements including the final measurement, and 205 had all three measurements. RESULTS: Multivariate analysis for repeated measures showed that ECDI had an estimated 33.1% effectiveness in reducing anemia (95% CI: 1.0%-54.7%), adjusted for age, sex, consumption of iron-rich foods, consumption of iron-absorption-enhancing foods, consumption of iron-absorption-inhibiting foods, having received iron supplementation in the last six months, and having participated in the Cuna Más Program. CONCLUSIONS: ECDI was effective in improving nutrition in children aged <36 months through anemia reduction and increased consumption of iron-absorption enhancers. Interventions that include educational and community monitoring components could be of great assistance to combating anemia in children aged <36 months in rural communities.

OBJETIVO: Determinar a efetividade da Estratégia de Crescimento e Desenvolvimento Integral (ECDI) da World Vision Peru para anemia, desnutrição, desenvolvimento psicomotor e atenção e proteção infantis em crianças menores de 3 anos de idade em três comunidades rurais. MÉTODOS: Foi realizado estudo quase-experimental em três distritos rurais da região de Ayacucho, no Peru. A avaliação da anemia foi realizada em sangue capilar com o uso do analisador HemoCue®, com correção dos valores de hemoglobina segundo a altitude. A desnutrição foi avaliada segundo indicadores antropométricos de tamanho e peso, com o uso da ferramenta Anthro elaborada pela Organização Mundial da Saúde (OMS). O desenvolvimento psicomotor foi avaliado com o Teste Abreviado do Ministério da Saúde do Peru. A atenção e a proteção infantis foram avaliadas com o uso de uma ficha elaborada para esta finalidade. Foram realizadas três avaliações, com a linha de base em maio de 2013, a avaliação intermediária sendo realizada em novembro deste mesmo ano e a avaliação final, em maio de 2014. Ao todo, 283 crianças passaram por duas ou mais avaliações, incluindo a avaliação final, e 205 passaram por três avaliações. RESULTADOS: Na análise multivariada de medidas repetidas, a efetividade estimada da ECDI de reduzir a anemia foi de 33,1% (intervalo de confiança de 95%: 1,0%-54,7%), corrigida para idade, sexo, consumo de alimentos ricos em ferro, consumo de alimentos potenciadores da absorção de ferro, consumo de alimentos inibidores da absorção de ferro, suplementação de ferro nos últimos seis meses e participação no Programa Cuna Más (programa nacional de desenvolvimento infantil). CONCLUSÕES: A ECDI demonstrou efetividade para melhorar a nutrição das crianças menores de 36 meses com a redução da anemia e o aumento do consumo de potenciadores da absorção de ferro. Intervenções com componentes educacionais e acompanhamento comunitário podem contribuir consideravelmente para combater a anemia em crianças menores de 36 meses em comunidades rurais.

Modelo para mejorar la anemia y el cuidado infantil en un ámbito rural del Perú / A model to improve anemia and child care in rural Peru / Um modelo para melhorar a anemia e a atenção infantil na área rural no Peru

RESUMEN Objetivo Determinar la efectividad de la Estrategia para el Crecimiento y Desarrollo Integral (ECDI) de World Vision Perú sobre la anemia, desnutrición, desarrollo psicomotor y cuidado y protección infantil en niños menores de tres años de edad que residían en tres comunidades rurales de la Región Ayacucho del Perú. Métodos Se realizó un estudio cuasiexperimental en tres distritos rurales de la región Ayacucho, Perú. La medición de anemia se realizó con sangre capilar y el analizador HemoCue®, con ajuste de los valores de hemoglobina según a la altitud. La desnutrición se midió a través de los indicadores antropométricos de talla y peso; para ello se utilizó la herramienta Anthro de la Organización Mundial de la Salud. El desarrollo psicomotor se midió mediante el Test Abreviado del Ministerio de Salud del Perú. El cuidado y protección de los niños se midió a través de una ficha especialmente elaborada para este fin. Se realizaron tres mediciones, la línea basal en mayo del 2013, la medición intermedia en noviembre del mismo año y la final en mayo del 2014. En total, 283 niños tuvieron dos o más mediciones incluida la medición final y 205 tuvieron las tres mediciones. Resultados El análisis multivariado para medidas repetidas mostró una efectividad estimada de la ECDI para reducir la anemia de 33,1% (intervalo de confianza del 95%: 1,0%-54,7%) ajustada para la edad, sexo, consumo de alimentos ricos en hierro, consumo de alimentos potenciadores de la absorción de hierro, consumo de alimento inhibidores de la absorción de hierro, haber recibido suplementación de hierro en los últimos seis meses y haber participado del Programa Cuna Más. Conclusiones La ECDI fue efectiva para mejorar la nutrición de los menores de 36 meses de edad a través de la reducción de la anemia y el incremento del consumo de potenciadores de la absorción de hierro. Las intervenciones que incluyen componentes educativos y de seguimiento comunitarios podrían ser de gran ayuda para combatir la anemia en los niños menores de 36 meses de edad en comunidades rurales.

Objective Determine the effectiveness of the Integrated Growth and Development Strategy (ECDI, Spanish acronym) of World Vision Peru on anemia, malnutrition, psychomotor development, and child care and protection in children aged <3 years living in three rural communities of Ayacucho Region, Peru. Methods A quasi-experiment was carried out in three rural districts of Ayacucho Region, Peru. Anemia was measured using capillary blood and the HemoCue® analyzer, with hemoglobin values adjusted for altitude. Malnutrition was measured with anthropometric indicators for height and weight, using the World Health Organization's Anthro software. Psychomotor development was measured with the Abbreviated Test of the Ministry of Health of Peru. Child care and protection was measured using a form specifically designed for this purpose. Three measurements were carried out: baseline in May 2013, midpoint in November 2013, and final in May 2014. In total, 283 children had two or more measurements including the final measurement, and 205 had all three measurements. Results Multivariate analysis for repeated measures showed that ECDI had an estimated 33.1% effectiveness in reducing anemia (95% CI: 1.0%-54.7%), adjusted for age, sex, consumption of iron-rich foods, consumption of iron-absorption-enhancing foods, consumption of iron-absorption-inhibiting foods, having received iron supplementation in the last six months, and having participated in the Cuna Más Program. Conclusions ECDI was effective in improving nutrition in children aged <36 months through anemia reduction and increased consumption of iron-absorption enhancers. Interventions that include educational and community monitoring components could be of great assistance to combating anemia in children aged <36 months in rural communities.

RESUMO Objetivo Determinar a efetividade da Estratégia de Crescimento e Desenvolvimento Integral (ECDI) da World Vision Peru para anemia, desnutrição, desenvolvimento psicomotor e atenção e proteção infantis em crianças menores de 3 anos de idade em três comunidades rurais. Métodos Foi realizado estudo quase-experimental em três distritos rurais da região de Ayacucho, no Peru. A avaliação da anemia foi realizada em sangue capilar com o uso do analisador HemoCue®, com correção dos valores de hemoglobina segundo a altitude. A desnutrição foi avaliada segundo indicadores antropométricos de tamanho e peso, com o uso da ferramenta Anthro elaborada pela Organização Mundial da Saúde (OMS). O desenvolvimento psicomotor foi avaliado com o Teste Abreviado do Ministério da Saúde do Peru. A atenção e a proteção infantis foram avaliadas com o uso de uma ficha elaborada para esta finalidade. Foram realizadas três avaliações, com a linha de base em maio de 2013, a avaliação intermediária sendo realizada em novembro deste mesmo ano e a avaliação final, em maio de 2014. Ao todo, 283 crianças passaram por duas ou mais avaliações, incluindo a avaliação final, e 205 passaram por três avaliações. Resultados Na análise multivariada de medidas repetidas, a efetividade estimada da ECDI de reduzir a anemia foi de 33,1% (intervalo de confiança de 95%: 1,0%-54,7%), corrigida para idade, sexo, consumo de alimentos ricos em ferro, consumo de alimentos potenciadores da absorção de ferro, consumo de alimentos inibidores da absorção de ferro, suplementação de ferro nos últimos seis meses e participação no Programa Cuna Más (programa nacional de desenvolvimento infantil). Conclusões A ECDI demonstrou efetividade para melhorar a nutrição das crianças menores de 36 meses com a redução da anemia e o aumento do consumo de potenciadores da absorção de ferro. Intervenções com componentes educacionais e acompanhamento comunitário podem contribuir consideravelmente para combater a anemia em crianças menores de 36 meses em comunidades rurais.

Neurologic Outcomes in HIV-Exposed/Uninfected Infants Exposed to Antiretroviral Drugs During Pregnancy in Latin America and the Caribbean.

To evaluate antiretroviral (ARV) drug exposure and other factors during pregnancy that may increase the risk of neurologic conditions (NCs) in HIV-exposed/uninfected (HEU) infants. A prospective cohort study was conducted at 24 clinical sites in Latin America and the Caribbean. Data on maternal demographics, health, HIV disease status, and ARV use during pregnancy were collected. Infant data included measurement of head circumference after birth and reported medical diagnoses at birth, 6-12 weeks, and 6 months. Only infants with maternal exposure to combination ARV therapy (cART) (≥3 drugs from ≥2 drug classes) during pregnancy were included. Microcephaly, defined as head circumference for age z-score less than -2, and NC were evaluated for their association with covariates, including individual ARVs, using bivariable and logistic regression analyses. From 2002 to 2009, 1,400 HEU infants met study inclusion criteria. At least one NC was reported in 134 (9.6%; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 8.1-11.2), microcephaly in 105 (7.5%; 95% CI: 6.2-9.0), and specific neurologic diagnoses in 33 (2.4%; 95% CI: 1.6-3.3) HEU infants. Microcephaly and NC were not significantly associated with any specific ARV analyzed (p > 0.05). Covariates associated with increased odds of NC included male sex (odds ratio [OR] = 1.9; 95% CI: 1.3-2.8), birth weight <2.5 kg (OR = 3.1; 95% CI: 2.1-4.8), 1-min Apgar score <7 (OR = 2.5; 95% CI: 1.4-4.4), and infant infections (OR = 2.5; 95% CI: 1.5-4.1). No ARV investigated was associated with adverse neurologic outcomes. Continued investigation of such associations may be warranted as new ARVs are used during pregnancy and cART exposure during the first trimester becomes increasingly common.

A community-based cluster randomized survey of noncommunicable disease and risk factors in a peri-urban shantytown in Lima, Peru.

BACKGROUND: An estimated 863 million people-a third of the world's urban population-live in slums, yet there is little information on the disease burden in these settings, particularly regarding chronic preventable diseases. METHODS: From March to May 2012, we conducted a cluster randomized survey to estimate the prevalence of noncommunicable diseases (NCDs) and associated risk factors in a peri-urban shantytown north of Lima, Peru. Field workers administered a questionnaire that included items from the WHO World Health Survey and the WHO STEPS survey of chronic disease risk factors. We used logistic regression to assess the associations of NCDs and related risk factors with age and gender. We accounted for sampling weights and the clustered sampling design using statistical survey methods. RESULTS: A total of 142 adults were surveyed and had a weighted mean age of 36 years (range 18-81). The most prevalent diseases were depression (12%) and chronic respiratory disease (8%), while lifetime prevalence of cancer, arthritis, myocardial infarction, and diabetes were all less than 5%. Fifteen percent of respondents were hypertensive and the majority (67%) was unaware of their condition. Being overweight or obese was common for both genders (53%), but abdominal obesity was more prevalent in women (54% vs. 10% in men, p < 0.001). Thirty-five percent of men binge drank and 34% reported current smoking; these behaviors were less common among women (4% binge drank, p < 0.001; 8% smoked, p = 0.002). Increasing age was associated with an increased risk of abdominal obesity (Odds Ratio (OR) = 1.04, 95% CI = 1.01, 1.07, p = 0.02), hypertension (OR = 1.06, 95% CI = 1.02, 1.10, p = 0.006), arthritis (OR = 1.07, 95% CI = 1.03, 1.11, p < 0.001) and cancer (OR = 1.13, 95% CI = 1.07, 1.20, p < 0.001) in adjusted models. The prevalences of other NCDs and related risk factors were similar when stratified by age or gender. CONCLUSIONS: This study underlines the important burden of noncommunicable disease in informal settlements in Peru and suggests that prevention and treatment interventions could be optimized according to age and gender.

Trends in the management and outcome of HIV-1-infected women and their infants in the NISDI Perinatal and LILAC cohorts, 2002-2009.

OBJECTIVE: To describe temporal management and outcome trends among HIV-1-infected pregnant women and their infants enrolled in the NISDI Perinatal and LILAC cohorts. METHODS: A prospective cohort of 1548 HIV-1-infected pregnant women and their 1481 singleton live-born infants was analyzed. Participants were enrolled at 24 Latin American and Caribbean sites and followed-up for at least 6 months postpartum. Variables were compared by 2-year enrollment periods from September 27, 2002, to June 30, 2009, using logistic and linear regression modeling. RESULTS: Antiretroviral (ARV) use during pregnancy remained high (99.0%). ARVs became increasingly used for treatment (P<0.001). Regimens containing 2 nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors plus a protease inhibitor became more common in later years (P<0.001). The proportion of women with viral loads below 1000 copies/mL at hospital discharge after delivery (HD) increased over time (P=0.0031). Median CD4 lymphocyte counts also rose at HD, from 441 cell/mm(3) to 515 cells/mm(3) (P<0.05). Elective cesarean deliveries increased from 30.5% to 42.0% (P=0.018). Most infants received ARV prophylaxis (99.7%). Few infants were breastfed (0.5%) or became infected with HIV-1 (1.2%). CONCLUSION: The results indicate that national HIV-1 treatment and transmission prevention policies are effective among patients with healthcare access in the region.

Estimación y análisis de la incidencia de VIH en población adulta del Perú: resultados de la aplicación del modelo matemático MoT / Estimation and analysis of HIV incidence in the adult population in Peru: results of application of the MoT mathematical model

Objetivos. Estimar la incidencia de VIH en la población adulta del Perú, 2010, y analizar su distribución según comportamientos de riesgo. Materiales y métodos. Se aplicó el modelo de ONUSIDA según modos de transmisión (MoT). Los datos fueron obtenidos de la revisión detallada de 59 documentos (1984 - 2008). También se analizó bases de datos nacionales para obtener datos específicos. La selección final de los datos fue validada por el grupo técnico y un grupo de expertos. Después de la consulta con expertos, se corrigieron los valores y se realizó un análisis de incertidumbre. El modelo fue ajustado a la prevalencia nacional del 2009 (0,45%). Resultados. La incidencia estimada para el 2010 fue de 0,03%, (4346 nuevas infecciones). El 84% de nuevas infecciones se concentra en grupos de mayor riesgo: hombres que tienen sexo con hombres (55%) y personas que tienen sexo casual heterosexual (6,2%). El 16% restante corresponde a la población heterosexual de bajo riesgo. La transmisión heterosexual es el 43% de nuevos casos, y dentro de estos el 18% corresponde a parejas femeninas de sujetos de alto riesgo. Solo 2,2% de casos está relacionado al trabajo sexual femenino y 1,0% a usuarios de drogas inyectables. Conclusiones. El modelo proporciona una estimación de la incidencia y su distribución entre los grupos de riesgo según el modo de transmisión, consistente con los reportes de casos de VIH. El modelo permite crear escenarios para ayudar a la toma de decisiones y formulación de políticas, así como para vigilancia y planificación de la prevención y control.

Objectives. To estimate HIV incidence in the adult population of Peru, 2010, and analyze its distribution based on risk behavior. Materials and methods. The UNAIDS model was applied based on the modes of transmission (MoT). The information was obtained from the review detailed in 59 documents (1984 - 2008). National databases were also analyzed to obtain specific data. Final selection of data was validated by the technical group and a group of experts. After consultation with experts, values were corrected and an uncertainty analysis was conducted. The model was adjusted to 2009 national prevalence (0.45%). Results. Incidence estimated for 2010 was 0.03%, (4346 new infections). 84% of new infections concentrate on higher risk groups: men who have sex with men (55%) and people who have casual sex with heterosexuals (6.2%). The remaining 16% corresponds to low-risk heterosexual population. Heterosexual transmission accounts for 43% of new cases, 18% of which corresponds to female partners of high risk individuals. Only 2.2% of cases is related to female sexual work and 1.0% to injection drug users. Conclusions. The model provides an estimation of the incidence and its distribution among risk groups according to the mode of transmission, consistent with the HIV case reporting. The model creates scenarios to help decision making and policy formulation, as well as surveillance and planning of prevention and control.

Missed opportunities for prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV-1 in the NISDI Perinatal and LILAC cohorts.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate cases of mother-to-child transmission of HIV-1 at multiple sites in Latin America and the Caribbean in terms of missed opportunities for prevention. METHODS: Pregnant women infected with HIV-1 were eligible for inclusion if they were enrolled in either the NISDI Perinatal or LILAC protocols by October 20, 2009, and had delivered a live infant with known HIV-1 infection status after March 1, 2006. RESULTS: Of 711 eligible mothers, 10 delivered infants infected with HIV-1. The transmission rate was 1.4% (95% CI, 0.7-2.6). Timing of transmission was in utero or intrapartum (n=5), intrapartum (n=2), intrapartum or early postnatal (n=1), and unknown (n=2). Possible missed opportunities for prevention included poor control of maternal viral load during pregnancy; late initiation of antiretrovirals during pregnancy; lack of cesarean delivery before labor and before rupture of membranes; late diagnosis of HIV-1 infection; lack of intrapartum antiretrovirals; and incomplete avoidance of breastfeeding. CONCLUSION: Early knowledge of HIV-1 infection status (ideally before or in early pregnancy) would aid timely initiation of antiretroviral treatment and strategies designed to prevent mother-to-child transmission. Use of antiretrovirals must be appropriately monitored in terms of adherence and drug resistance. If feasible, breastfeeding should be completely avoided. Presented in part at the XIX International AIDS Conference (Washington, DC; July 22-27, 2012); abstract WEPE163.