Efficient green Cr(VI) adsorbent from sorghum waste: Eco-designed functionalized mesoporous silica FDU-12.

This paper presents an eco-design approach to the synthesis of a highly efficient Cr(VI) adsorbent, utilizing a positively charged surface mesoporous FDU-12 material (designated as MI-Cl-FDU-12) for the first time. The MI-Cl-FDU-12 anion-exchange adsorbent was synthesized via a facile one-pot synthesis approach using sodium silicate extracted from sorghum waste as a green silica source, 1-methyl-3-(triethoxysilylpropyl) imidazolium chloride as a functionalization agent, triblock copolymer F127 as a templating or pore-directing agent, trimethyl benzene as a swelling agent, KCl as an additive, and water as a solvent. The synthesis method offers a sustainable and environmentally friendly approach to the production of a so-called "green" adsorbent with a bimodal micro-/mesoporous structure and a high surface area comparable with the previous reports regarding FDU-12 synthesis. MI-Cl-FDU-12 was applied as an anion exchanger for the adsorption of toxic Cr(VI) oxyanions from aqueous media and various kinetic and isotherm models were fitted to experimental data to propose the adsorption behavior of Cr(VI) on the adsorbent. Langmuir model revealed the best fit to the experimental data at four different temperatures, indicating a homogeneous surface site affinity. The theoretical maximum adsorption capacities of the adsorbent were found to be 363.5, 385.5, 409.0, and 416.9 mg g-1 at 298, 303, 308, and 313 K, respectively; at optimal conditions (pH=2, adsorbent dose=3.0 mg, and contact time of 30 min), surpassing that of most previously reported Cr(VI) adsorbents in the literature. A regeneration study revealed that this adsorbent possesses outstanding performance even after six consecutive recycling.

Modified TiO2 nanotubes-zeolite composite photocatalyst: Characteristics, microstructure and applicability for degrading triclocarban.

The study explored the characteristics and effectiveness of modified TiO2 nanotubes with zeolite as a composite photocatalyst (MTNZC) for the degradation of triclocarban (TCC) from the aqueous solution. MTNZC samples have been produced via electrochemical anodisation (ECA) followed by electrophoretic deposition (EPD). Three independent factors selected include MTNZC size (0.5-1 cm2), pH (3-10), and irradiation time (10-60 min). The observation revealed that the surface of Ti substrate by the 40 V of anodisation and 3 h of calcination was covered with the array ordered, smooth and optimum elongated nanotubes with average tube length was approximately 5.1 µm. EDS analysis proved the presence of Si, Mg, Al, and Na on MTNZC due to the chemical composition present in the zeolite. The average crystallite size of TiO2 nanotubes increased from 2.07 to 3.95 nm by increasing anodisation voltage (10, 40, and 60 V) followed by 450 °C of calcination for 1, 3, and 6 h, respectively. The optimisation by RSM shows the F-value (36.12), the p-value of all responses were less than 0.0001, and the 95% confidence level of the model by all the responses indicated the model was significant. The R2 in the range of 0.9433-0.9906 showed the suitability of the model to represent the actual relationship among the parameters. The photocatalytic degradation rate of TCC from the first and the fifth cycles were 94.2 and 77.4%, indicating the applicability of MTNZC to be used for several cycles.

Resource recovery from landfill leachate: An experimental investigation and perspectives.

This work investigates the performances of coconut shell waste-based activated carbon (CSWAC) adsorption in batch studies for removal of ammoniacal nitrogen (NH3-N) and refractory pollutants (as indicated by decreasing COD concentration) from landfill leachate. To valorize unused resources, coconut shell, recovered and recycled from agricultural waste, was converted into activated carbon, which can be used for leachate treatment. The ozonation of the CSWAC was conducted to enhance its removal performance for target pollutants. The adsorption mechanisms of refractory pollutants by the adsorbent are proposed. Perspectives on nutrient recovery technologies from landfill leachate from the view-points of downstream processing are presented. Their removal efficiencies for both recalcitrant compounds and ammoniacal nitrogen were compared to those of other techniques reported in previous work. It is found that the ozonated CSWAC substantially removed COD (i.e. 76%) as well as NH3-N (i.e. 75%), as compared to the CSWAC without pretreatment (i.e. COD: 44%; NH3-N: 51%) with NH3-N and COD concentrations of 2750 and 8500 mg/L, respectively. This reveals the need of ozonation for the adsorbent to improve its performance for the removal of COD and NH3-N at optimized reactions: 30 g/L of CSWAC, pH 8, 200 rpm of shaking speed and 20 min of reaction time. Nevertheless, treatment of the leachate samples using the ozonated CSWAC alone was still unable to result in treated effluents that could meet the COD and NH3-N discharge standards below 200 and 5 mg/L, respectively, set by legislative requirements. This reveals that another treatment is necessary to be undertaken to comply with the requirement of their effluent limit.

Insights into the ameliorating ability of mesoporous silica in modulating drug release in ternary amorphous solid dispersion prepared by hot melt extrusion.

In this work, the application of various mesoporous silica grades in the preparation of stabilized ternary amorphous solid dispersions of Felodipine using hot melt extrusion was explored. We have demonstrated the effectiveness of mesoporous silica in these dispersions without the need for any organic solvents i.e., no pre-loading or immersion steps required. The physical and chemical properties, release profiles of the prepared formulations and the surface concentrations of the various molecular species were investigated in detail. Formulations containing 25 wt% and 50 wt% of Felodipine demonstrated enhanced stability and solubility of the drug substance compared to its crystalline counterpart. Based on the Higuchi model, ternary formulations exhibited a 2-step or 3-step release pattern which can be ascribed to the release of drug molecules from the organic polymer matrix and the external silica surface, followed by a release from the silica pore structure. According to the Korsmeyer-Peppas model, the release rate and release mechanism are governed by a complex quasi-Fickian release mechanism, in which multiple release mechanisms are occurring concurrently and consequently. Stability studies indicated that after 6 months storage of all formulation at 30% RH and 20 °C, Felodipine in all formulations remained stable in its amorphous state except for the formulation comprised of 40 wt% Syloid AL-1FP with a 50 wt% drug load.

In-line Raman spectroscopy and chemometrics for monitoring cocrystallisation using hot melt extrusion.

The application of in-line Raman spectroscopy to monitor the formation of a 1:1 cocrystal of ibuprofen (IBU) as a BCS class II drug and nicotinamide as coformer using hot-melt extrusion (HME) was investigated. The process was monitored over different experimental conditions inserting the Raman probe before the extruder die. Partial least square (PLS) was applied as a robust chemometric technique to build predictive models at different levels of chemometric by dividing the experimental data set into calibration and validation subsets. Powder X-Ray diffraction (PXRD) spectra of a set of standard samples were used as calibration to calculate the cocrystal yield from HME experiments regressed by the PLS models. Examination of the full spectra with standard normal variate (SNV) scatter correction with first derivative provided the best fitting goodness and reliability for prediction. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) was used as a complementary technique to confirm the composition of the extrudates. Tracking the cocrystal formation throughout the barrel by inserting two Raman probes simultaneously in two different heating zones revealed highly valuable information for understanding the mechanism of cocrystal formation during the HME process.

A societal transition of MSW management in Xiamen (China) toward a circular economy through integrated waste recycling and technological digitization.

Recently Xiamen (China) has encountered various challenges of municipal solid waste management (MSWM) such as lack of a complete garbage sorting and recycling system, the absence of waste segregation between organic and dry waste at source, and a shortage of complete and clear information about the MSW generated. This article critically analyzes the existing bottlenecks in its waste management system and discusses the way forward for the city to enhance its MSWM by drawing lessons from Hong Kong's effectiveness in dealing with the same problems over the past decades. Solutions to the MSWM problem are not only limited to technological options, but also integrate environmental, legal, and institutional perspectives. The solutions include (1) enhancing source separation and improving recycling system; (2) improving the legislation system of the MSWM; (3) improvement of terminal disposal facilities in the city; (4) incorporating digitization into MSWM; and (5) establishing standards and definitions for recycled products and/or recyclable materials. We also evaluate and compare different aspects of MSWM in Xiamen and Hong Kong SAR (special administrative region) under the framework of 'One Country, Two Systems' concerning environmental policies, generation, composition, characteristics, treatment, and disposal of their MSW. The nexus of society, economics of the MSW, and the environment in the sustainability sphere are established by promoting local recycling industries and the standardization of recycled products and/or recyclable materials. The roles of digitization technologies in the 4th Industrial Revolution for waste reduction in the framework of circular economy (CE) are also elaborated. This technological solution may improve the city's MSWM in terms of public participation in MSW separation through reduction, recycle, reuse, recovery, and repair (5Rs) schemes. To meet top-down policy goals such as a 35% recycling rate for the generated waste by 2030, incorporating digitization into the MSWM provides the city with technology-driven waste solutions.

Resource recovery toward sustainability through nutrient removal from landfill leachate.

This study investigated the feasibility of integrated ammonium stripping and/or coconut shell waste-based activated carbon (CSWAC) adsorption in treating leachate samples. To valorize unused biomass for water treatment application, the adsorbent originated from coconut shell waste. To enhance its performance for target pollutants, the adsorbent was pretreated with ozone and NaOH. The effects of pH, temperature, and airflow rate on the removal of ammoniacal nitrogen (NH3-N) and refractory pollutants were studied during stripping alone. The removal performances of refractory compounds in this study were compared to those of other treatments previously reported. To contribute new knowledge to the field of study, perspectives on nutrients removal and recovery like phosphorus and nitrogen are presented. It was found that the ammonium stripping and adsorption treatment using the ozonated CSWAC attained an almost complete removal (99%) of NH3-N and 90% of COD with initial NH3-N and COD concentrations of 2500 mg/L and 20,000 mg/L, respectively, at optimized conditions. With the COD of treated effluents higher than 200 mg/L, the combined treatments were not satisfactory enough to remove target refractory compounds. Therefore, further biological processes are required to complete their biodegradation to meet the effluent limit set by environmental legislation. As this work has contributed to resource recovery as the driving force of landfill management, it is important to note the investment and operational expenses, engineering applicability of the technologies, and their environmental concerns and benefits. If properly managed, nutrient recovery from waste streams offers environmental and socio-economic benefits that would improve public health and create jobs for the local community.

Image processing for detecting complete two dimensional properties' distribution of granules produced in twin screw granulation.

In this study, an image processing technique is implemented to measure complete two-dimensional particle size and liquid content distribution (2D-distribution) of the granules produced in twin screw granulation (TSG). The effects of liquid binder viscosity and liquid to solid ratio (L/S) on the 2D-distribution, and the residence time distribution were studied. The effect of screw configuration on granule formation at different conditions was also investigated, were the mean residence time distribution (MRTD) in conveying elements decreases with the increase of L/S ratio and viscosity. While in kneading elements the MRTD decreases with the increase of L/S and increases with the increase of viscosity. The mean liquid saturation level of the granule is exponentially related to its size. As well, the increase in binder viscosity and L/S ratio leads to more uneven/bi-model particle size distribution (PSD) in the conveying elements, while kneading elements change the initial bi-model PSDs into more homogenous mono-model like distributions.

Synthesis of multi-organo-functionalized fibrous silica KCC-1 for highly efficient adsorption of acid fuchsine and acid orange II from aqueous solution.

Multi-functionalized fibrous silica KCC-1 (MF-KCC-1) bearing amine, tetrasulfide, and thiol groups was synthesized via a post-functionalization method and fully characterized by several methods such as FTIR, FESEM, EDX-Mapping, TEM, and N2 adsorption-desorption techniques. Due to abundant surface functional groups, accessible active adsorption sites, high surface area (572 m2 g-1), large pore volume (0.98 cm3 g-1), and unique fibrous structure, mesoporous MF-KCC-1 was used as a potential adsorbent for the uptake of acid fuchsine (AF) and acid orange II (AO) from water. Different adsorption factors such as pH of the dye solution, the amount of adsorbent, initial dye concentration, and contact time, affecting the uptake process were optimized and isotherm and kinetic studies were conducted to find the possible mechanism involved in the process. For both AF and AO dyes, the Langmuir isotherm model and the PFO kinetic model show the most agreement with the experimental data. According to the Langmuir isotherm, the calculated maximum adsorption capacity for AF and AO were found to be 574.5 mg g-1 and 605.9 mg g-1, respectively, surpassing most adsorption capacities reported until now which is indicative of the high potential of mesoporous MF-KCC-1 as an adsorbent for removal applications.

A novel and facile green synthesis method to prepare LDH/MOF nanocomposite for removal of Cd(II) and Pb(II).

To date, many nanoadsorbents have been developed and used to eliminate heavy metal contamination, however, one of the challenges ahead is the preparation of adsorbents from processes in which toxic organic solvents are used in the least possible amount. Herein, we have developed a new carboxylic acid-functionalized layered double hydroxide/metal-organic framework nanocomposite (LDH/MOF NC) using a simple, effective, and green in situ method. UiO-66-(Zr)-(COOH)2 MOF nanocrystals were grown uniformly over the whole surface of COOH-functionalized Ni50Co50-LDH ultrathin nanosheets in a green water system under a normal solvothermal condition at 100 °C. The synthesized LDH/MOF NC was used as a potential adsorbent for removal of toxic Cd(II) and Pb(II) from water and the influence of important factors on the adsorption process was monitored. Various non-linear isotherm and kinetic models were used to find plausible mechanisms involved in the adsorption, and it was found that the Langmuir and pseudo-first-order models show the best agreement with isotherm and kinetic data, respectively. The calculated maximum adsorption capacities of Cd(II) and Pb(II) by the LDH/MOF NC were found to be 415.3 and 301.4 mg g-1, respectively, based on the Langmuir model (pH = 5.0, adsorbent dose = 0.02 g, solution volume = 20 mL, contact time = 120 min, temperature = 25 â„ƒ, shaking speed 200 rpm).

Efficient oxidation/mineralization of pharmaceutical pollutants using a novel Iron (III) oxyhydroxide nanostructure prepared via plasma technology: Experimental, modeling and DFT studies.

High-performance novel iron oxyhydroxide (limonite) nanostructure, with improved surface reactive sites, was prepared via one-pot, eco-friendly, free precursor and cold glow discharge N2-plasma technique. Natural and plasma treated (PTNL/N2) limonite samples were characterized by FESEM, XPS, XRD, FTIR, AAS, EDX, BET/BJH and pHpzc to confirm the successful synthesis. Central composite design (CCD) and artificial neural network (ANN, topology of 4:8:1) methods were utilized to study the oxidation/mineralization of phenazopyridine (PhP) as a hazardous contaminant by heterogeneous catalytic ozonation process (HCOP). The obtained results indicated that PTNL/N2 had the highest catalytic performance in PhP degradation (98.6% in 40 min) and mineralization (80.4% in 120 min). The degradation mechanism in different processes was investigated by dissolved ozone concentration, various organic scavengers (BQ and TBA) and inorganic salts (NaNO3, NaCl, Na2CO3 and NaH2PO4). Moreover, reusability-stability, Fe and nitrogen (NO3- and NH4+) ions release were assessed during different AOPs. Furthermore, toxicity tests indicated that the HCOP using PTNL/N2 was able to detoxify the PhP solutions efficiently. Finally, Density Functional Theory (DFT) studies were employed to introduce the most plausible contaminant degradation pathway, reactive sites and byproducts. This research provided a new insight into the improvement of wastewater treatment studies by a combination of experiment and computer simulation.

Reforming MSWM in Sukunan (Yogjakarta, Indonesia): A case-study of applying a zero-waste approach based on circular economy paradigm.

Over the past years, Indonesia, the world's fourth most populous country, has confronted environmental problems due to uncontrolled generation of municipal solid waste (MSW). While the integrated solid waste management (ISWM) represents a critical strategy for Indonesia to control its production, it is also recognized that economic approaches also need to be promoted to address the waste problem concertedly. In this case study, empirical approaches are developed to understand how a volume-based waste fee could be incorporated into MSW collection services and how to apply a zero-waste approach in Indonesia by adapting resource recovery initiatives, adapted from Germany's mature experiences in integrating the CE paradigm into the latter's MSWM practices. Currently, Sukunan village (Yogyakarta, Indonesia) promotes waste reduction at sources in the framework of community-based solid waste management (CBSWM) by mobilizing the local community for waste separation (organic and non-organic) and waste recycling. As a result, about 0.2 million Mt of CO2-eq emissions was avoided annually from local landfills. The economic benefits of recycling activities by the village's community also resulted in 30% reduction of the waste generated. This CBSWM scheme not only saves the government budget on waste collection, transport and disposal, but also extends the lifetime of local landfills as the final disposal sites. By integrating the CE paradigm into its MSWM practices through the implementation of economic instruments and adherence to the rule of law in the same way as Germany does, Indonesia could make positive changes to its environmental policy and regulation of MSW. A sound MSWM in Indonesia could play important roles in promoting the effectiveness of urban development with resource recovery approaches to facilitate its transition towards a CE nationwide in the long-term.

Complete two dimensional population balance modelling of wet granulation in twin screw.

In this study, a complete two dimensional (internal coordinates) population balance model (2D-PBM) is developed, calibrated and validated as a predictive tool for predicting the particle size and the liquid content distribution of the granules produced from twin screw granulation (TSG). The model is calibrated and validated using experimental distributions for the two internal coordinates that are captured using image processing. Granulation runs are conducted at multiple liquid to solid (L/S) ratios and liquid binder viscosities, and then used to calibrate and validate the 2D-PBM. The mathematical model accounts for aggregation and breakage of the particles occurring in three zones of the TSG with inhomogeneous screw configurations (2 conveying zones and 1 kneading zone). A Madec aggregation kernel, and a linear breakage selection function are used in the 2D-PBM and finite volume numerical approximation is used for solving the model. The calibrated model shows that the aggregation rate in the conveying elements is higher than in the kneading elements while the breakage rate in the kneading elements is much higher than in the conveying elements. Also, the increase in L/S ratio and liquid viscosity leads to higher aggregation rates and lower breakage rates.

Metal-Organic Material Polymer Coatings for Enhanced Gas Sorption Performance and Hydrolytic Stability under Humid Conditions.

Physisorbent metal-organic materials (MOMs) have shown benchmark performance for highly selective CO2 capture from bulk and trace gas mixtures. However, gas stream moisture can be detrimental to both adsorbent performance and hydrolytic stability. One of the most effective methods to solve this issue is to transform the adsorbent surface from hydrophilic to hydrophobic. Herein, we present a facile approach for coating MOMs with organic polymers to afford improved hydrophobicity and hydrolytic stability under humid conditions. The impact of gas stream moisture on CO2 capture for the composite materials was found to be negligible under both bulk and trace CO2 capture conditions with significant improvements in regeneration times and energy requirements.

Compartmental approach for modelling twin-screw granulation using population balances.

In this study, a compartmental population balance model (CPBM) is developed as a predictive tool of particle size distribution (PSD) for wet granulation in co-rotating twin-screw granulator (TSG). This model is derived in terms of liquid to solid ratio (L/S) and screw speed representing the main process parameters of the TSG. The mathematical model accounts for aggregation and breakage of the particles occurring in five compartments of the TSG with inhomogeneous screw configurations (3 conveying zones and 2 kneading zones). Kapur's aggregation kernel is implemented in granulation and finite volume numerical method is adapted for solving the mathematical model. The results show a dramatic improvement in solution accuracy compared to the cell average numerical method. Moreover, Kriging interpolation is used to interpolate for new values of empirical parameters at different L/S and screw speeds. Finally, the CPBM model is calibrated and validated using the experimental data.

Mass-based finite volume scheme for aggregation, growth and nucleation population balance equation.

In this paper, a new mass-based numerical method is developed using the notion of Forestier-Coste & Mancini (Forestier-Coste & Mancini 2012, SIAM J. Sci. Comput. 34, B840-B860. (doi:10.1137/110847998)) for solving a one-dimensional aggregation population balance equation. The existing scheme requires a large number of grids to predict both moments and number density function accurately, making it computationally very expensive. Therefore, a mass-based finite volume is developed which leads to the accurate prediction of different integral properties of number distribution functions using fewer grids. The new mass-based and existing finite volume schemes are extended to solve simultaneous aggregation-growth and aggregation-nucleation problems. To check the accuracy and efficiency, the mass-based formulation is compared with the existing method for two kinds of benchmark kernels, namely analytically solvable and practical oriented kernels. The comparison reveals that the mass-based method computes both number distribution functions and moments more accurately and efficiently than the existing method.

Amorphous solid dispersion of ibuprofen: A comparative study on the effect of solution based techniques.

Amorphous solid dispersion (ASD) is one of the most promising strategies for improving the solubility of active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) with low aqueous solubility. Solvent-based techniques such as electrospinning (ES), spray-drying (SD) and rotary evaporation (RE), have all previously been shown to be effective techniques for formulating ASDs. To date however, the effect of these processing techniques on the physicochemical properties and ASD homogeneity or "quality of ASD" produced remains largely unexplored. This work uses ibuprofen (IBU) as a model BCS class II API with two cellulosic excipients, HPMCAS and HPMCP-HP55 to produce ASDs by employing ES, SD and RE processing techniques. The physicochemical, morphological and dissolution properties of each sample were evaluated and the ASD forming strengths of each of the polymers were assessed using Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC). Principal |Component Analysis (PCA) of Raman spectra of crystalline and amorphous IBU was employed for qualitative analysis of ASD homogeneity and subsequent ASD stability during long-term storage. Results show that while ASD formation is predominantly dependent on API:excipient ratio, the ASD homogeneity is highly dependent on processing technique. Dissolution studies show that electrospun samples had the highest API release rate due to their fibrous morphology and higher specific surface area. However, these samples were the least homogenous of all ASDs produced thereby potentially influencing sample stability during long term storage. In addition, the higher melting point depression, higher Tg, and increased abundance of functional groups suitable for hydrogen bonding, show HPMCAS to be a significantly better ASD co-former when compared with HPMCP-HP55.

Particle engineering of excipients: A mechanistic investigation into the compaction properties of lignin and [co]-spray dried lignin.

In this work, lignin was spray dried with sodium lauryl sulphate (SLS) in order to improve the compaction properties of lignin. Bulk level and physicochemical properties of spray dried formulations were measured and compared to as-received lignin and lactose which was used as a reference excipient. Single component tablets from individual powders were prepared and the mechanical properties of these powders were investigated by analysing force-displacement curves recorded during tableting, using a series of compaction equations. Moreover, the performance of these excipients in binary blends containing an active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) was investigated. A positive effect of SLS on the mechanical properties and bulk level properties of the spray dried formulations was observed. Spray dried formulations containing SLS showed superior flow properties to pure spray dried lignin while retaining similar particle size distributions. Spray dried formulations containing up to 10 w/w% SLS also showed superior compactibility in binary blends to as-received materials at porosity levels relevant for immediate release tablets. This study highlights the importance of understanding the compaction mechanics of single component powders as a means of predicting their behaviour in multi-component blends.

Spray drying of pharmaceuticals and biopharmaceuticals: Critical parameters and experimental process optimization approaches.

Spray drying is increasingly becoming recognized as an efficient drying and formulation technique for pharmaceutical and biopharmaceutical processing. It offers significant economic and processing advantages compared to lyophilisation/freeze-drying techniques even though the optimisation of process parameters is often a costly and time-consuming procedure. Spray Drying has primarily been used in formulating small molecule drugs with low solubility however it is increasingly being applied to the processing of large biomolecules and biopharmaceuticals. This review examines the basics of spray drying process, current technology and various components used in spray drying process. Moreover, it is focused on introducing critical formulation and processing factors in spray drying of small molecule drugs and large biomolecules, their similarities and differences. Finally, it provides an overview of the experimental optimisation strategies designed to achieve optimum spray drying results in the shortest possible timeframe while utilising minimum product.

Investigation of the Dependence of the Flory-Huggins Interaction Parameter on Temperature and Composition in a Drug-Polymer System.

The Flory-Huggins (F-H) solubility equation has been widely used to describe the solubility of a small-molecule drug in a polymeric carrier and thus determine the design space available for formulating a stable amorphous solid dispersion. The F-H interaction parameter (χ) describes the thermodynamic properties of drug-polymer solutions and accounts for any enthalpic and entropic changes in solubility. Many studies have found that for a limited compositional range, χ varies proportionally to the inverse of the melting temperature of the drug. We explored this relationship using a highly sensitive DSC technique to detect remaining residual crystalline active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) following annealing of ball milled mixtures of crystalline itraconazole (ITZ) and either Soluplus or hydroxypropyl methylcellulose phthalate (HPMCP) at temperatures near the estimated solubility curve. Depending on the experimental approach taken, the measurement of drug-polymer solubility can be restricted to mixtures with a high proportion of drug, but in this study, solubility was experimentally determined for mixtures with API content as low as 10 wt %. Results suggest that the proposed linear relationship does not extend to compositions with smaller amounts of API, instead indicating that χ was both temperature- and composition-dependent for the systems studied. The feasibility of this technique to measure interactions in a ternary system containing itraconazole and both polymers was also determined; ITZ-HPMCP exhibited the most favorable values of χ, while ITZ-Soluplus and ITZ-Soluplus-HPMCP demonstrated similar interaction parameters.