SARS-CoV-2 Neutralizing Antibodies in Mexican Population: A Five Vaccine Comparison.

Neutralizing antibodies (NAs) are key immunological markers and are part of the humoral response of the adaptive immune system. NA assays determine the presence of functional antibodies to prevent SARS-CoV-2 infection. We performed a real-world evidence study to detect NAs that confer protection against SARS-CoV-2 after the application of five vaccines (Pfizer/BioNTech, AstraZeneca, Sinovac, Moderna, and CanSino) in the Mexican population. Side effects of COVID-19 vaccines and clinical and demographic factors associated with low immunogenicity were also evaluated. A total of 242 SARS-CoV-2-vaccinated subjects were recruited. Pfizer/BioNTech and Moderna proved the highest percentage of inhibition in a mono-vaccine scheme. Muscular pain, headache, and fatigue were the most common adverse events. None of the patients reported severe adverse events. We found an estimated contagion-free time of 207 (IQR: 182-231) and 187 (IQR: 184-189) days for Pfizer/BioNTech and CanSino in 12 cases in each group. On the basis of our results, we consider that the emerging vaccination strategy in Mexico is effective and safe.

Identification of Germline Variants in Patients with Hereditary Cancer Syndromes in Northeast Mexico.

Hereditary cancer syndromes (HCS) are genetic diseases with an increased risk of developing cancer. This research describes the implementation of a cancer prevention model, genetic counseling, and germline variants testing in an oncologic center in Mexico. A total of 315 patients received genetic counseling, genetic testing was offered, and 205 individuals were tested for HCS. In 6 years, 131 (63.90%) probands and 74 (36.09%) relatives were tested. Among the probands, we found that 85 (63.9%) had at least one germline variant. We identified founder mutations in BRCA1 and a novel variant in APC that led to the creation of an in-house detection process for the whole family. The most frequent syndrome was hereditary breast and ovarian cancer syndrome (HBOC) (41 cases with BRCA1 germline variants in most of the cases), followed by eight cases of hereditary non-polyposic cancer syndrome (HNPCC or Lynch syndrome) (with MLH1 as the primarily responsible gene), and other high cancer risk syndromes. Genetic counseling in HCS is still a global challenge. Multigene panels are an essential tool to detect the variants frequency. Our program has a high detection rate of probands with HCS and pathogenic variants (40%), compared with other reports that detect 10% in other populations.

General empathy and medical empathy in Mexican medical students: Integration of an empathic profile.

OBJECTIVE: To identify the association between general empathy and medical empathy. Detect predictors of the level of medical empathy from general empathy. To determine the psychosocial profile that describes the relationship between general empathy, medical empathy, and demographic and academic characteristics in medical students. METHOD: Descriptive cross-sectional design. Medical students completed the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI) and the Jefferson Scale of Physician Empathy-student version (JSPE-S). RESULTS: Relatively high levels of general and medical empathy were detected. The total score of the IRI and the JSPE-S and their dimensions correlated positively (r = 0.14-0.52), except for the dimension personal distress of the IRI. The score of the IRI dimension empathic concern was the best predictor of the JSPE-S score and its dimensions (b = 0.27-0.54). Four profiles were detected: 1) men, preference for technology-oriented specialty, less empathy; 2) pre-clinical period students, less empathy; 3) students of the clinical period, greater empathy; and 4) women, preference for patient-oriented specialty, greater empathy. CONCLUSIONS: General and medical empathy are associated. Differentiated empathic profiles will allow the design of instructional strategies in empathy according to the specific needs of each one.

OBJETIVO: Identificar la asociación entre empatía general y empatía médica. Detectar predictores del nivel de empatía médica a partir de la empatía general. Determinar el perfil psicosocial que describa la relación entre empatía general, empatía médica y características demográficas y académicas en estudiantes de medicina. MÉTODO: Estudio transversal descriptivo. Estudiantes de medicina completaron el Índice de Reactividad Interpersonal (IRI) y la Escala de Empatía Médica de Jefferson versión estudiantil (EEMJ-E). RESULTADOS: Se detectaron niveles relativamente altos de empatía general y médica. El puntaje total del IRI y la EEMJ-E y sus dimensiones se correlacionaron positivamente (r = 0.14-0.52), excepto para la dimensión malestar personal del IRI. El puntaje en la dimensión preocupación empática del IRI fue el mejor predictor del puntaje de la EEMJ-E y sus dimensiones (b = 0.27-0.54). Se detectaron cuatro perfiles: 1) hombres, preferencia por especialidad orientada a la tecnología, menor empatía; 2) estudiantes del periodo preclínico, menor empatía; 3) estudiantes del periodo clínico, mayor empatía; y 4) mujeres, preferencia por especialidad orientada al paciente, mayor empatía. CONCLUSIONES: La empatía general y la empatía médica se encuentran asociadas. Unos perfiles empáticos diferenciados permitirán el diseño de estrategias de instrucción en empatía acordes con las necesidades específicas de cada uno.

Empatía, habilidades de colaboración interprofesional y aprendizaje médico permanente en residentes españoles y latinoamericanos que inician los programas de formación médica especializada en España. Resultados preliminares / Empathy, inter-professional collaboration, and lifelong medical learning in Spanish and Latin-American physicians-in-training who start their postgraduate training in hospitals in Spain. Preliminary outcomes

OBJETIVO: Identificar similitudes y diferencias en la empatía, en las habilidades de trabajo colaborativo interprofesional, y en las habilidades de aprendizaje médico permanente entre médicos residentes españoles y latinoamericanos que inician su formación especializada en hospitales docentes españoles. DISEÑO: Estudio observacional mediante encuesta. Emplazamiento. Cinco hospitales docentes de la provincia de Barcelona, España. PARTICIPANTES: Médicos residentes, españoles y latinoamericanos, que inician el primer año de los programas de formación médica especializada. Mediciones principales. La empatía mediante la escala Jefferson de empatía médica. La colaboración interprofesional mediante la escala Jefferson de actitud hacia el trabajo colaborativo en equipos medicina-enfermería. El aprendizaje mediante la escala Jefferson de aprendizaje médico permanente. RESULTADOS: En una muestra de 156 residentes, 110 españoles y 40 latinoamericanos, los españoles mostraron una mayor orientación empática que los latinoamericanos (p < 0,05). Por su parte, los extranjeros mostraron puntuaciones más altas en habilidades de aprendizaje médico permanente respecto a sus pares españoles (p < 0,001). En todo el grupo se observó una relación positiva entre la empatía y el trabajo colaborativo (r=+0,47; p < 0,001). Una asociación similar se observó en el grupo de latinoamericanos, entre las habilidades de aprendizaje y las de trabajo colaborativo (r=+0,34; p < 0,05). CONCLUSIONES: Los resultados confirman observaciones preliminares y ponen en evidencia la asociación positiva que existe entre la empatía y las habilidades de trabajo colaborativo interprofesional. En médicos latinoamericanos que inician su formación en hospitales españoles, el mayor desarrollo de las habilidades de aprendizaje médico permanente parece influir positivamente en el desarrollo de otras competencias de interés profesional

OBJECTIVE: To identify similarities and differences in empathy, abilities toward inter-professional collaboration, and lifelong medical learning, between Spanish and Latin-American physicians-in-training who start their posgraduate training in teaching hospitals in Spain. DESIGN: Observational study using self-administered questionnaires. Settings. Five teaching hospitals in the province of Barcelona, Spain. Participants. Spanish and Latin-American physicians-in-training who started their first year of post-graduate medical training. Main measurements. Empathy was measured using the Jefferson scale of empathy. Abilities for inter-professional collaboration were measured using the Jefferson scale attitudes towards nurse-physician collaboration. Learning was measured using the Jefferson scale of medical lifelong learning scale. RESULTS: From a sample of 156 physicians-in-training, 110 from Spain and 40 from Latin America, the Spanish group showed the highest empathy (p<.05). On the other hand, Latin-American physicians had the highest scores in lifelong learning abilities (p<.001). A positive relationship was found between empathy and inter-professional collaboration for the whole sample (r=+0.34; p<.05). CONCLUSIONS: These results confirm previous preliminary data and underline the positive influence of empathy in the development of inter-professional collaboration abilities. In Latin-American physicians who start posgraduate training programs, lifelong learning abilities have a positive influence on the development of other professional competencies

[Empathy, inter-professional collaboration, and lifelong medical learning in Spanish and Latin-American physicians-in-training who start their postgraduate training in hospitals in Spain. Preliminary outcomes]. / Empatía, habilidades de colaboración interprofesional y aprendizaje médico permanente en residentes españoles y latinoamericanos que inician los programas de formación médica especializada en España. Resultados preliminares.

OBJECTIVE: To identify similarities and differences in empathy, abilities toward inter-professional collaboration, and lifelong medical learning, between Spanish and Latin-American physicians-in-training who start their posgraduate training in teaching hospitals in Spain. DESIGN: Observational study using self-administered questionnaires. SETTINGS: Five teaching hospitals in the province of Barcelona, Spain. PARTICIPANTS: Spanish and Latin-American physicians-in-training who started their first year of post-graduate medical training. MAIN MEASUREMENTS: Empathy was measured using the Jefferson scale of empathy. Abilities for inter-professional collaboration were measured using the Jefferson scale attitudes towards nurse-physician collaboration. Learning was measured using the Jefferson scale of medical lifelong learning scale. RESULTS: From a sample of 156 physicians-in-training, 110 from Spain and 40 from Latin America, the Spanish group showed the highest empathy (p<.05). On the other hand, Latin-American physicians had the highest scores in lifelong learning abilities (p<.001). A positive relationship was found between empathy and inter-professional collaboration for the whole sample (r=+0.34; p<.05). CONCLUSIONS: These results confirm previous preliminary data and underline the positive influence of empathy in the development of inter-professional collaboration abilities. In Latin-American physicians who start posgraduate training programs, lifelong learning abilities have a positive influence on the development of other professional competencies.

Empatía médica en médicos que realizan el programa de formación médica especializada. Estudio comparativo intercultural en España / Medical empathy of physicians-in-training who are enrolled in professional training programs. A comparative intercultural study in Spain

OBJETIVO: Caracterizar algunos de los factores ambientales que intervienen en el desarrollo de la empatía y que son sensibles a las diferencias culturales en médicos residentes españoles y latinoamericanos. DISEÑO: Estudio transversal y observacional mediante encuesta. Emplazamiento. Servicios de atención primaria y hospitalaria del Sistema Riojano de Salud, Logroño, España. PARTICIPANTES: Médicos residentes que realizan los programas de formación médica especializada en los servicios de atención primaria y hospitalaria. MEDICIONES PRINCIPALES: La empatía se midió mediante el cuestionario Jefferson de empatía médica, en su versión para profesionales sanitarios (JSE-HP). Se recogieron variables sociodemográficas e información sobre la experiencia académica y profesional. RESULTADOS: Ciento cuatro médicos residentes (67 españoles y 32 latinoamericanos) participaron en el estudio. El JSE-HP mostró adecuadas propiedades psicométricas. La puntuación media de empatía de los médicos españoles fue mayor que la de los latinoamericanos (p = 0,01). Se encontraron diferencias en el desarrollo de la empatía asociadas al desarrollo de modelos profesionales (p < 0,001), al encuentro positivo con otros profesionales (p = 0,001), y al desarrollo de una formación profesional continuada (p = 0,008). CONCLUSIONES: Algunos de los factores que intervienen en el desarrollo de la empatía y que son sensibles a la influencia cultural han podido ser caracterizados. Se proponen futuras líneas de investigación y desarrollo

OBJECTIVE: To characterise some of the environmental factors that are sensitive to cultural influence, and are involved in the development of medical empathy in Spanish and Latin American physicians-in-training. DESIGN: Cross-sectional study using questionnaires. SETTING: Primary care and specialized medicine centres of the Healthcare System of La Rioja, Logroño, Spain. Participants. Physicians-in-training MAIN MEASUREMENTS: Empathy was measured using the Jefferson Scale of Physician Empathy, version for healthcare professionals (JSE-HP). Socio-demographic, academic, and professional background information was collected. RESULTS: A total of 104 residents (67 from Spain and 32 from Latin America) answered and returned the questionnairess. The JSE-HP showed adequate psychometric properties. The empathy mean score of Spanish group was higher than that of the Latin American group (P=.01). Differences in the development of empathy were associated with: the development of professional models (P<.001), the positive encounter with other professionals (P=.001), and with a continuing medical education (P=.008). CONCLUSIONS: Some factors involved in the development of empathy that are sensitive to cultural influence have been characterised. The development of future research areas is suggested

Cross-Validation of the Spanish HP-Version of the Jefferson Scale of Empathy Confirmed with Some Cross-Cultural Differences.

CONTEXT: Medical educators agree that empathy is essential for physicians' professionalism. The Health Professional Version of the Jefferson Scale of Empathy (JSE-HP) was developed in response to a need for a psychometrically sound instrument to measure empathy in the context of patient care. Although extensive support for its validity and reliability is available, the authors recognize the necessity to examine psychometrics of the JSE-HP in different socio-cultural contexts to assure the psychometric soundness of this instrument. The first aim of this study was to confirm its psychometric properties in the cross-cultural context of Spain and Latin American countries. The second aim was to measure the influence of social and cultural factors on the development of medical empathy in health practitioners. METHODS: The original English version of the JSE-HP was translated into International Spanish using back-translation procedures. The Spanish version of the JSE-HP was administered to 896 physicians from Spain and 13 Latin American countries. Data were subjected to exploratory factor analysis using principal component analysis (PCA) with oblique rotation (promax) to allow for correlation among the resulting factors, followed by a second analysis, using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). Two theoretical models, one based on the English JSE-HP and another on the first Spanish student version of the JSE (JSE-S), were tested. Demographic variables were compared using group comparisons. RESULTS: A total of 715 (80%) surveys were returned fully completed. Cronbach's alpha coefficient of the JSE for the entire sample was 0.84. The psychometric properties of the Spanish JSE-HP matched those of the original English JSE-HP. However, the Spanish JSE-S model proved more appropriate than the original English model for the sample in this study. Group comparisons among physicians classified by gender, medical specialties, cultural and cross-cultural backgrounds yielded statistically significant differences (p < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: The findings support the underlying factor structure of the Jefferson Scale of Empathy (JSE). The results reveal the importance of culture in the development of medical empathy. The cross-cultural differences described could open gates for further lines of medical education research.

[Medical empathy of physicians-in-training who are enrolled in professional training programs. A comparative intercultural study in Spain]. / Empatía médica en médicos que realizan el programa de formación médica especializada. Estudio comparativo intercultural en España.

OBJECTIVE: To characterise some of the environmental factors that are sensitive to cultural influence, and are involved in the development of medical empathy in Spanish and Latin American physicians-in-training. DESIGN: Cross-sectional study using questionnaires. SETTING: Primary care and specialized medicine centres of the Healthcare System of La Rioja, Logroño, Spain. PARTICIPANTS: Physicians-in-training MAIN MEASUREMENTS: : Empathy was measured using the Jefferson Scale of Physician Empathy, version for healthcare professionals (JSE-HP). Socio-demographic, academic, and professional background information was collected. RESULTS: A total of 104 residents (67 from Spain and 32 from Latin America) answered and returned the questionnairess. The JSE-HP showed adequate psychometric properties. The empathy mean score of Spanish group was higher than that of the Latin American group (P=.01). Differences in the development of empathy were associated with: the development of professional models (P<.001), the positive encounter with other professionals (P=.001), and with a continuing medical education (P=.008). CONCLUSIONS: Some factors involved in the development of empathy that are sensitive to cultural influence have been characterised. The development of future research areas is suggested.

Validación de la escala de empatía médica de Jefferson en estudiantes de medicina mexicanos

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Summary Introduction A meaningful doctor-patient relationship is a key factor in medical practice and in the art of curing. In the past, several institutions have recommended the addition of humanistic education among medical doctors not only for enhancing the doctor-patient relationship, but also for improving the quality of medical care. In fact, an empathic physician-patient relationship has been associated with better clinic outcomes. In spite of recommendations, medical empathy is still an unexplored research area in medical education for two reasons. One of these is that theoretical research on empathy is not easy because of a lack of clarity in its conceptualization. Another reason for the dearth of empirical research is the absence of a valid and reliable operational tool by which to measure empathy in patient care situations. A team from the Center for Research in Medical Education and Health Care at the Medical College of Thomas Jefferson University, developed the Jefferson Scale of Physician Empathy (JSPE). The English version factor structure is consistent with conceptual aspects of a multidimensional scale that measures the perspective taking, compassionate care and "standing in the patient's shoes" factors. The JSPE has shown satisfactory psychometric properties; construct, discriminant, and criterion validity has been confirmed among medical students with an internal consistency of 0.89. Empathy may vary among individuals depending on social, educational, and personal experiences, and it corresponds to an interpersonal ability and a clinical competence component. Hence, the availability of a valid and reliable instrument for measuring empathy among medical doctors is a critical issue. However, the instrument should be culturally adapted for the population of interest. Therefore, the present study was designed for evaluating the validity and reliability of the Spanish version of the JPES among Mexican medical students. Material and methods Subjects: 1022 medical students (mean age 21±2.7 years) from the School of Medicine at the Autonomous University of Nuevo Leon, in Monterrey, Mexico (494 women and 528 men). Instrument: The students' version of the JSPE was used to measure the orientation of medical students towards empathy in patient care situations. The JSPE consists of 20 items on a seven-point Likert scale (1=strongly disagree, 7= strongly agree). Procedures: The JSPE was translated into Spanish and back translated following the guidelines to adaptate psychological evaluation instruments. The questionnaire was answered by first (n=687), third (n=183) and fifth grade (n=152) medical students. They were assured of the strict confidentiality of the test and of the individual responses. Plan of analysis: Dimensionality of 20 items was assessed with factors analysis using the principal components extraction method and orthogonal rotation. Cronbach's alpha was calculated for evaluating the internal consistency. Results The exploratory factor analysis allowed the identification of three factors with eigen values greater or equal to one. All the items with coefficients greater than 0.30 of the first factor were positive and corresponded to the perspective taking domain. On the other hand, seven out of ten negative questions loaded to the second factor with coefficients greater than 0.40; all of them were related to compassionate care. Finally, there were other two questions with high loading on the third factor, which matched to "standing in the patient's shoes" domain. The internal consistency was 0.74. The mean of empathy scores was 110 and the standard deviation, 14. The observed range was 44-140 compared to the possible range of 20-140. The mean empathy score was higher for women than men (111.9 ±13.9 vs. 109.08± 14.1, p=.002). Age was not significantly correlated with empathy scores, even after controlling for sex (women: r=-0.01; men: r=0.02). Conclusions The results of study supported the validity of the JSPE among medical students in Mexico. The first factor (perspective taking) corresponded to the main component of empathy. The other two factors, compassionate care and "standing in the patient's shoes", were related to specific components of the doctor-patient relationship. The observed internal consistency was satisfactory for personality tests. The findings showed significantly higher empathy scores for women than men, suggesting that female doctors might render a different type of medical care. These findings are consistent with those reported for U.S.A. medical students. It has been informed that women are more receptive to emotional signs than men and that they devote more time and offer more preventive care to their patients. More scientific evidence is needed to explain these sex differences which represents different implications for the selection of medical training. Interpersonal relationships are especially critical between physicians and patients. Failures in understanding a patient's perspective may result in communication problems, which in turn contribute to the patient's dissatisfaction with care. As soon as the doctor understands what his/her patient thinks and feels, he/she can offer a better care. This is how empathy translates into the vehicle of a meaningful doctor-patient relationship. Finally, empathy measurement is meaningful because it constitutes the first step for examining permanence from the first years of the medical career up to specialty training years. It also allows for the analysis of the impact of educational strategies designed to improve empathy and achieve potential benefits not only for the doctors' professional development but also for their patients' health.