Do Children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Follow a Different Dietary Pattern than That of Their Control Peers?

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is one of the most common neurodevelopmental disorders in children and adolescents. A current area of interest is the association between ADHD and food consumption. The aim of this study was to determine the food consumption and dietary patterns of children with and without ADHD in relation to their age and ADHD presentation. The study involved 259 preschoolers aged 3 to 6 years old (57 with ADHD and 202 controls) and 475 elementary-school-age children, aged 10 to 12 years old (213 with ADHD and 262 controls) from Spain. ADHD was diagnosed in accordance with the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th edition) from Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia for School-Age Children interviews. Eating data were collected using a food consumption frequency questionnaire, and principal component analysis was carried out to analyze dietary patterns. Western-like, sweet, and healthy patterns were identified. The ADHD group was negatively associated with the healthy pattern (p < 0.001) and positively associated with the Western-like diet (p = 0.004). Children with inattentive presentation showed lower adherence (12.2%) to a healthy pattern than that of the control group (39.9%) (p < 0.001). There is an association between ADHD and dietary habits; children with inattentive presentation may particularly be at risk of unhealthy eating habits.

ADHD subtypes are associated differently with circadian rhythms of motor activity, sleep disturbances, and body mass index in children and adolescents: a case-control study.

To date, few studies have examined the circadian pattern of motor activity in children and adolescents newly diagnosed with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). The objective was to study the circadian pattern of motor activity in subjects with ADHD (medication naïve) and to investigate the relationships between alterations in circadian patterns, the ADHD subtype (combined or inattentive), sleep disturbances and body mass index (BMI). One-hundred twenty children and adolescents (60 medication naïve ADHD and 60 controls) were included in a gender- and age-matched case-control study. ADHD was diagnosed according to the DSM-IV-TR, the Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia-Present and Lifetime Version, and the Conner's Parents Rating Scale-Revised. Circadian rhythms of motor activity and sleep parameters were measured using actigraphy and the Sleep Disturbance Scale for Children. BMI and dietary intake were also evaluated. ADHD patients showed a trend towards eveningness and greater sleep disturbances than controls. Additionally, patients with ADHD-combined had significantly higher mean values of motor activity and showed a significant delay in bedtime. Furthermore, among ADHD-C patients hyperactivity symptoms were significantly associated with the least 5 h of activity. Regarding patients with ADHD-inattentive, increased fragmentation of the circadian pattern was associated with inattention symptoms, and they also showed a significant increase in BMI of 2.52 kg/m2 [95% CI 0.31, 4.73] in comparison with controls. Our findings highlight the potential use of actigraphy as a clinical tool to aid in the diagnosis of ADHD. It should be noted that evaluating motor activity variables could also allow the differentiation between ADHD subtypes.

One-Year Prospective Study of Liver Function Tests in Children and Adolescents on Second-Generation Antipsychotics: Is There a Link with Metabolic Syndrome?

OBJECTIVE: To analyze liver function tests (LFT), weight, metabolic syndrome (MetS) and at risk of meeting MetS criteria (AR-MetS) in children and adolescents on antipsychotics (AP) during a year-long follow-up. METHODS: Two hundred sixteen patients, AP naïve or quasi-naïve (<30 days on AP), were included. Total bilirubin, the enzymes aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), weight and other parameters of MetS were measured at baseline, and at 3, 6 and 12 months, while patients remained on the same AP. RESULTS: At baseline, patients (mean age: 14.1 ± 3.1 years; 60.2% male) were on risperidone (N = 143), olanzapine (N = 37), or quetiapine (N = 36), although the sample decreased over time to 67 patients at 12 months (risperidone N = 46, olanzapine N = 10, and quetiapine N = 11). Around 3% of patients had ALT/AST levels that were at least twice the upper limit of normal (ULN) at 3 and 6 months; whereas roughly 19% of patients had ALP levels that were at least twice the ULN in at least one assessment after baseline, but had no clinical symptoms. From baseline to 6 months, significant increases were observed in ALT levels in the whole sample (p = 0.005), whereas ALP increased only in patients on risperidone. Patients showed significant weight gain, and more individuals met criteria for MetS and AR-MetS over time (from baseline: 2.8% and 8.3%, to 1 year: 10.5% and 23.9%, respectively). There was a trend-level group effect in global ALT across time (p = 0.076). Patients with MetS showed higher ALT concentrations (28.9 [18.4-39.4] U/L) than AR-MetS (20.4 [8.5-32.2] U/L), and no-AR-MetS (19.2 [8.4-29.9] U/L). CONCLUSIONS: Less than 3% of children and adolescents on AP during 1-year follow-up showed an increase in ALT or AST levels in one or more of the assessments, and none of these increases was of clinical significance. Patients with MetS and AR-MetS increased during this period, and the possible role of ALT levels to monitor these patients deserves further study.

Second-generation antipsychotic use in children and adolescents: a six-month prospective cohort study in drug-naïve patients.

OBJECTIVE: To assess weight and metabolic effects of 6 months of treatment with second-generation antipsychotics in naïve/quasi-naïve youths. METHOD: This study looked at a nonrandomized, naturalistic, multicenter, inception cohort study of 279 patients aged 4 to 17 years (mean = 14.6 ± 2.9 years). Of those, 248 (88.8%) received a single antipsychotic (risperidone, olanzapine, or quetiapine) and completed 2 visits, and 178 (63.8%) completed the 6-month follow-up. Patients had schizophrenia-spectrum disorders (44.5%), mood-spectrum disorders (23.2%), disruptive behavioral disorders (17.3%), or other disorders (15.1%). Fifteen age- and gender-matched, healthy, nonmedicated individuals served as a comparison group. RESULTS: From baseline to 1 month, 3 months, and 6 months, all anthropometric measures increased significantly with each antipsychotic, that is, 6-month changes with risperidone (n = 157; 7.1 kg and 0.66 body mass index [BMI] z score), olanzapine (n = 44; 11.5 kg and 1.08 BMI z score), and quetiapine (n = 47; 6.3 kg and 0.54 BMI z score), but not in healthy control participants (-0.11 kg and 0.006 BMI z score). Fasting metabolic parameters increased significantly with risperidone (glucose [3.8] mg/dL, insulin [4.9] mU/L, homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance [HOMA-IR: 1.2], triglycerides [15.6] mg/dL), and olanzapine (glucose [5.0] mg/dL, total cholesterol [21.2] mg/dL, and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol [44.6] mg/dL), but not with quetiapine or in healthy control participants. The percentage of research participants considered to be "at risk of adverse health outcome" increased during the 6 months from 8.9% to 29.2% for risperidone (p < .0001), 6.8% to 38.1% for olanzapine (p < .0001), and 6.3% to 4.0% for quetiapine (p = .91). CONCLUSION: Olanzapine, quetiapine, and risperidone increase body weight but have different cardiometabolic side effect profiles and different temporal side effect patterns.

Association of childhood adversities with the first onset of mental disorders in Spain: results from the ESEMeD project.

PURPOSE: Childhood adversities (CAs) have consistently been associated with mental health problems in childhood and adulthood. However, few studies have employed appropriate statistical methods that take into account overlap among CAs, and many of the ones that did so were based on insufficiently complex models. The present paper studies the prevalence of a wide variety of CAs, as well as their relationship to the onset of mental disorders in a representative sample of a Spanish population. METHODS: The study is part of the ESEMeD-Spain project, a cross-sectional household survey, which included a nationally representative sample of the Spanish adult population. CAs' associations with lifetime prevalence of mental disorders were estimated using discrete-time survival analysis with person-years as the unit of analysis. RESULTS: Of our sample, 20.6% reported at least one CA, of whom 24% reported more than one CA. Parental death, parental mental disorder, family violence, economic adversity, physical and sexual abuse were associated with different groups of mental disorders. CAs were associated with the onset of mental disorders during several stages of life. Simulations suggest that CAs were associated with 12.6% of all disorders, 10.8% of mood disorders, 5.8% of anxiety disorders, 27% of substance disorders and 29.7% of externalising disorders. CONCLUSIONS: Prevalences of CAs in the Spanish population are lower than those found in other high-income countries, especially when compared to the USA. In Spain, different CAs were associated with the onset of a number of mental disorders, although these associations were not as frequent as in other countries. Although lower than in other countries, the association between CAs and mental health in Spain should be considered relevant. Specific health policies and prevention programmes are needed in order to decrease this burden.

Efectos secundarios del tratamiento antipsicótico en niños y adolescentes naïve o quasi-naïve: diseño de un protocolo de seguimiento y resultados basales / Secondary effects of antipsychotic treatment in naive or quasi-naive children and adolescents: Design of a follow-up protocol and baseline results

Introducción. La prescripción de fármacos antipsicóticos en niños y adolescentes se ha convertido en una práctica habitual. Métodos. Este artículo presenta el diseño de un estudio multicéntrico longitudinal a 12 meses con 266 niños y adolescentes a los que se les prescribió por primera vez un antipsicótico de primera o segunda generación y los resultados basales del estudio. El protocolo de seguimiento tuvo como finalidad detectar la posible aparición de cambios metabólicos, cardiológicos y motores. Resultados. Cuando se valoró la presencia de efectos secundarios a través de la UKU (Udvalg für Kliniske Undersogelser) se encontraron diferencias estadísticamente significativas entre pacientes naïve (pacientes incluidos que nunca habían tomado antipsicótico) y quasi-naïve (aquellos que habían tomado antipsicóticos durante un periodo inferior a 30 días), mostrando un mayor número de estos últimos síntomas de: ansiedad/laxitud/fatigabilidad (p=0,0049), somnolencia/sedación (p<0,001), aumento duración sueños (p<0,001), aumento de sueños (p=0,0199), indiferencia emocional (p=0,0194), hipocinesia/acinesia (p=0,0224), parestesias (p=0,0049), trastorno de acomodación (p=0,0254), aumento de la salivación (p<0,001), poliuria/polidipsia (p=0,0076), aumento de la sudoración (p=0,0076), aumento del deseo sexual (p=0,0117), disminución del deseo sexual (p=0,0053), cefaleas tensionales. (p=0,0405). Cuando se valoró la presencia de síntomas extrapiramidales con la MPRC-IMS (Maryland Psychiatry Research Center-Involuntary Movements Scale) se observó que los pacientes quasi-naïve presentaron un número estadísticamente superior de síntomas de discinesia (p=0,002), parkinsonismo (p=0,0004) y acatisia (p=0,0437) con respecto a los naïve. Conclusiones. Estos resultados ponen de manifiesto que en población infanto-juvenil, la presencia de efectos secundarios se comienza a observar ya desde el inicio de la toma de fármacos antipsicóticos(AU)

Introduction. The prescribing of anti-psychotic drugs has become a normal clinical practice. Methods. This article presents a longitudinal, multicentre 12-months-long study conducted on 266 children and adolescents who were prescribed a first or second generation antipsychotic drug for the first time, and the baseline results of the study. The follow-up protocol had its purpose to detect the possible appearance of metabolic, cardiological, and motor changes. Results. When the presence of side effects was evaluated using the UKU (clinical side-effects scale) statistically significant differences were found between naïve (patients who had never taken an anti-psychotic drug) and quasi-naïve patients (those who have taken anti-psychotic drugs for a period of less than 30 days), with a greater number of the latter showing symptoms of: anxiety/laxity/tiredness (P=0.0049), drowsiness/sedation (P<0.001), increase in dream duration (P<0.001), increase in dreams (P=0.0199), emotional indifference (P=0.0194), hypokinesia/akinesia (P=0.0224), paresthesias (P=0.0049), accommodation disorder (P=0.0254), increase in salivation (P<0.001), polyuria/polydipsia (P=0.0076), increase in sweating (P=0.0076), increase in sexual desire (P=0.0117), decrease in sexual desire (P=0.0053), tension headaches (P=0.0405). When the presence of extrapyramidal symptoms was assessed using the MPRC-IMS (Maryland Psychiatry Research Center-Involuntary Movement Scale), it was observed that the quasi-naïve patients had a statistically higher number of dyskinesia (P=0.002), Parkinsonism (P=0.0004) and akathisia (P=0.0437) symptoms compared to the naïve patients. Conclusions. These results show that, in the childhood-adolescent population, the presence of secondary effects begins to be observed from the first dose of the antipsychotic drug(AU)

Secondary effects of antipsychotic treatment in naive or quasi-naive children and adolescents: design of a follow-up protocol and baseline results.

INTRODUCTION: The prescribing of anti-psychotic drugs has become a normal clinical practice. METHODS: This article presents a longitudinal, multicentre study of 12 months conducted on 266 children and adolescents who were prescribed a first or second generation antipsychotic drug for the first time, and the baseline results of the study. The follow-up protocol had as its purpose to detect the possible appearance of metabolic, cardiological, and motor changes. RESULTS: When the presence of side effects was evaluated using the UKU (clinical side-effects scale) statistically significant differences were found between naive (patients who had never taken an anti-psychotic drug) and quasi-naive patients (those who have taken anti-psychotic drugs for a period of less than 30 days), with a greater number of the latter showing symptoms of: anxiety/laxity/tiredness (P=.0049), drowsiness/sedation (P<.001), increase in dream duration (P<.001), increase in dreams (P=.0199), emotional indifference (P=.0194), hypokinesia/akinesia (P=.0224), paresthesias (P=.0049), accommodation disorder (P=.0254), increase in salivation (P<.001), polyuria/polydipsia (P=.0076), increase in sweating (P=.0076), increase in sexual desire (P=.0117), decrease in sexual desire (P=.0053), tension headaches (P=.0405). When the presence of extrapyramidal symptoms was assessed using the MPRC-IMS (Maryland Psychiatry Research Center-Involuntary Movements) Scale, it was observed that the quasi-naïve patients had a statistically higher number of dyskinesia (P=.002), Parkinsonism (P=.0004) and akathisia (P=.0437) symptoms compared to the naïve patients. CONCLUSIONS: These results show that, in the childhood-adolescent population, the presence of secondary effects begins to be observed from the first dose of the antipsychotic drug.

Changes of urine dihydroxyphenylglycol to norepinephrine ratio in children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) treated with atomoxetine.

This study investigated changes in the urine dihydroxyphenylglycol to norepinephrine ratio in patients with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) treated with atomoxetine. The possible relationship with clinical response was also explored. Newly ADHD diagnosed, treatment-naïve children or adolescents were double-blindly randomized (2:1) to atomoxetine (n = 28) or placebo (n = 13). The dihydroxyphenylglycol to norepinephrine ratio decreased in both groups, showing significantly greater changes with atomoxetine than with placebo at week 6 (-42% versus -14%; P = .001), when dosed at 1.2 mg/kg/day, than at week 2 (-20% versus -2%; P = .118) with a dose of 0.5 mg/kg/day. Although the significant dihydroxyphenylglycol to norepinephrine ratio decrease with atomoxetine indicated norepinephrine transporter blockade, no association with ADHD clinical response (ADHD Rating Scale-IV-Parent:Investigator) was found. Therefore, dihydroxyphenylglycol to norepinephrine ratio might be a useful pharmacodynamic/pharmacokinetic biomarker, although not sufficiently sensitive to predict clinical efficacy. It remains a possibility that this ratio might have value to facilitate personalized atomoxetine pharmacotherapy in ADHD patients.

Malabsorption of carbohydrates and depression in children and adolescents.

BACKGROUND: Previous studies have shown an association between sugar malabsorption and depressive symptoms in adult women. Incompletely absorbed sugars may form nonabsorbable complexes with tryptophan, an amino acid precursor of serotonin, decreasing its availability. As serotonin is the most important neurotransmitter involved in depressive disorders, its depletion could lead to the onset of depression. METHODS: The authors' aim was to study the possible association between malabsorption of sugars (lactose and fructose) and depressive symptoms in adolescent patients of Spanish origin. The authors studied two groups of patients. Group G included 14 patients previously diagnosed with sugar intolerance. In these, the authors assessed depressive symptoms. Group P consisted of seven patients suffering from major depression. In these, the authors performed functional sugar absorption tests. The authors studied the metabolic pathway of tryptophan in both groups. RESULTS: In the group with sugar malabsorption, there was a 28.5% prevalence of depressive symptoms that was higher than expected in our population. In the group with depression, the authors found a higher than expected prevalence of sugar intolerance (71.42% versus 15% in controls). CONCLUSIONS: The unexpected prevalences obtained for the groups studied suggest that there may be an association between sugar intolerance and depressive symptoms during adolescence.