Animal handling and stress-related behaviour at mobile slaughter of cattle.

By avoiding animal transportation, mobile slaughter may have the potential to reduce animal stress. In a cross-sectional study with elements of cohort design, we investigated relationships between animal handling and stress-related animal behaviours in connection with slaughter at two Swedish slaughter plants: a newly started small-scale on-farm mobile abattoir and a relatively large-scale stationary slaughterhouse. To the stationary plant, the animals were transported on average 99 km from farms, and one third of these animals spent one night in lairage before slaughter. Data were collected during processing of 298 animals at both plants during one year. Stockperson actions and animal behaviours were observed in the driveways (2.4-7.3 m long) to the stun box. Data on season, hour of day, air temperature, animal breed, animal category, animal age, carcass weight and stockperson category (plant or farm) were also collected. We used Spearman rank correlation, principal-component analysis and confirmatory factor analysis to develop a final generalised structural equation model, which contained six variables that represented observed animal backing; turning; slipping; eliminating; vocalising; and violent behaviour, regressed on a latent variable representing animal stress level. Stress level and animal behaviours were also regressed on five variables representing observed stockperson actions (touching, patting or hitting with hand; touching, patting or hitting with a tool; pushing; tail-twisting; and prodding with an electric goad) and on background variables including plant identity. The animal behaviours were modelled as counts per driveway length, clustered on farm identity. Marginal effects of stockperson actions and predictive margins of plants were calculated. The animals displayed backing and violent behaviour (kicking, goring or violent fighting) at significantly lower frequencies at the mobile plant than at the stationary one. In general, stockperson actions were significantly positively associated with animal behaviours, i.e. increased actions were associated with more frequent behaviours. Stockperson moving with tool, pushing and using electric goad were indirectly significantly associated with all animal behaviours via animal stress level. This study shows the importance of adequate cattle handling to limit pre-slaughter stress.

Animal Welfare and Meat Quality Assessment in Gas Stunning during Commercial Slaughter of Pigs Using Hypercapnic-Hypoxia (20% CO2 2% O2) Compared to Acute Hypercapnia (90% CO2 in Air).

This study assessed aversion, stunning effectiveness, and product quality of nitrogen and carbon dioxide (CO2) mixtures used for stunning pigs. A total of 1852 slaughter pigs divided into two similar batches was assessed during routine slaughter in a Swedish commercial abattoir using either hypercapnic-hypoxia (20% CO2 and less than 2% O2; 20C2O) or hypercapnia (90% CO2; 90C) gas mixtures. Behavioral indicators of aversion and discomfort were recorded. After exposure, the stunning quality was assessed through brainstem reflexes. After slaughter, the pH and electric conductivity of carcasses were assessed to estimate the incidence of pale, soft, and exudative (PSE) pork, and the presence of ecchymosis were inspected. Compared to 90C, pigs exposed to 20C2O showed a later (p < 0.05) onset of behaviors indicative of aversion, and a lower (p < 0.01) incidence of breathlessness. However, unconsciousness (i.e., losing posture) appeared earlier (p < 0.01) in 90C compared to 20C2O. In 90C, all (100%) pigs were adequately stunned, whereas in 20C2O a 7.4% of pigs showed signs of poor stunning, especially when oxygen concentrations were >2% (p < 0.001). The percentage of PSE carcasses was higher (p < 0.01) in 20C2O than 90C. In conclusion, compared to 90C, 20C2O reduced aversion and discomfort but showed lower stun effectiveness, especially when O2 was above 2%, and a slightly poorer pork quality.

Do Laboratory Mouse Females that Lose Their Litters Behave Differently around Parturition?

Efficiency in laboratory mouse breeding is hampered by poor reproductive performance, including the loss of entire litters shortly after birth. However, the underlying mechanisms are not yet fully understood and establishing the cause of death in laboratory mouse pups can be complicated. Newborn mouse pups are generally hidden in nests, dead pups are often eaten by the female, and the widespread practice of leaving periparturient females undisturbed complicates inspection, which may delay the discovery of pup loss. In order to efficiently prevent problems with litter loss, it is important to find key factors for survival. We investigated differences in periparturient behavior between female laboratory mice whose pups survived until weaning and females whose entire litters were lost. Video recordings of 82 primiparous females of the C57BL/6 strain or knockouts with C57BL/6 background were used. The mice were observed from 24 h before until 24 h after parturition and female behaviors coded using a pre-established ethogram. The relationship between behavior and survival was analyzed using logistic models, where litter survival was regressed on the proportion of 30-s observations with at least one occurrence of the behavior. We found that females with surviving litters performed more nest building behavior during the last 24 h before parturition (p = 0.004) and spent less time outside the nest during the entire observation period (p = 0.001). Increased litter survival was also associated with more passive maternal behaviors and the female ignoring still pups less. Females that lost their litters performed more parturition-related behaviors, suggesting prolonged labor. The results indicate that maternal behavior plays a significant role in laboratory mouse pup survival. Complications at parturition also contribute to litter mortality.

Risk assessment of sheep welfare at small-scale slaughter in Nordic countries, comparing with large-scale slaughter.

BACKGROUND: During the pre-slaughter period, animals experience novel environment and procedures which may cause reduced welfare and suffering. Over the last decades, the slaughter industry has restructured into fewer and larger abattoirs, implying potential risks of transport stress, injuries, and impaired animal welfare. Since recently, however, there is growing interest in small-scale slaughter to supply locally or regionally produced meat. Risk managers at all levels thus need to assess animal welfare risks also at small-scale operations. This study aimed to assess risks of poor animal welfare at small-scale lamb slaughter (≤5000 sheep/year and ≤70 sheep/day) in Norway, Iceland, Sweden and Finland, and to compare these risks to large-scale industrial slaughter. Assessment was done applying an individual expert opinion approach during a 2-day workshop. Nine experts in lamb slaughter procedures, behaviour, physiology, health, scoring schemes and/or risk assessment provided estimates of exposure, likelihood of negative consequences following exposure, and intensity and duration of negative consequences for 71 hazards. The methods applied mainly adhered to the risk assessment guidelines of the European Food Safety Authority. The list of hazards was modified from an earlier study and distributed to the experts before the assessment. No other literature was reviewed specifically for the purpose of the assessment. RESULTS: The highest risks to animal welfare identified in both small- and large-scale slaughter were related to inadequate conditions during overnight lairage at the slaughter plant. For most hazards, risk estimates were lower in small-scale slaughter. The reverse was true for splitting of groups and separation of one sheep from the group. CONCLUSIONS: Small-scale slaughter has a potential for improved sheep welfare in comparison with large-scale industrial slaughter. Keeping the animals overnight at the slaughterhouse and prolonged fasting before slaughter should be avoided. Solutions include continuing education and training of stockpersons and, especially in large-scale slaughter, application of existing techniques for efficient transport logistics that minimise stress.

Impact of litter size on sow stayability in Swedish commercial piglet producing herds.

BACKGROUND: Sows' ability to produce an excessive amount of piglets has shaped modern piglet production and there has been a steady increase in litter size during the last decades. This development has caused some negative side-effects, such as an increase in the proportion of stillborn piglets, a decrease in the proportion of weaned piglets and a larger variation in quality of piglets. Swedish commercial piglet producing herds have, like other countries with high production levels, high piglet mortality and high annual removal rate of gilts and sow. These problems seem to have increased during the same period that litter sizes have increased. Therefore present study aim to investigate whether there is an association between litter sizes and sow stayability. RESULTS: The probability to produce ≥4 litters during a lifetime was significantly lower for sows giving birth to ≤8, 15 and ≥17 piglets in total in their first parity litter compared to sows giving birth to 13 piglets. Except for the group of sows having a small (≤11 piglets born in total) first parity litter size in combination with a medium (12-14 piglets born in total) second parity litter size, all other groups were significantly associated with an impaired ability to stay ≥4 litters compared to sows having a medium both first and second parity litter size. There were differences in removal reason between sows having small, medium or large first parities litter sizes. CONCLUSIONS: Associations between litter sizes in low parities and sow stayability were found. Our results indicate that aiming for keeping sows giving birth to a medium-sized litter, with approximately 12-14 piglets born in total may improve sows stayability and decrease the risk of unplanned removal. This should be considered when planning breeding strategy and annual removal in Swedish commercial piglets producing herds.

Post-mortem findings and piglet mortality in relation to strategic use of straw at farrowing.

Piglet survival is the outcome of complex interactions between the sow, the piglet and their environment. In order to facilitate nest-building and to provide a suitable environment for the newborn piglets, a strategic method to supply loose housed sows with large quantities of straw at farrowing has been developed by Swedish piglet-producing farmers. The objectives of this cohort study were to use post-mortem findings to assess the causes of death and to quantify the effect of a large quantity of straw provided before farrowing compared to limited small daily amounts on stillbirths, post-mortem findings in piglets dying within 5 days after birth and the pre-weaning mortality. On each of four commercial piglet-producing farms in South-West Sweden, one batch of sows was studied during two consecutive lactations. At inclusion, sows were randomly assigned to two treatment groups, and sows remaining in the batch during the next lactation switched treatment group. In the STRAW group (n=181 litters) sows were provided with 15-20 kg of chopped straw 2 days prior to the calculated date of farrowing. Sows in the CONTROL group (n=182 litters) received 0.5-1 kg of chopped straw on a daily basis plus about 2 kg for nest-building when the stockperson judged the sow to be about to farrow. After onset of farrowing, additionally 1-2 kg was given. Post-mortem examination was performed in all piglets that died within 5 days after birth (n=798). The three major post-mortem findings were starvation (34%) crushing by the sow (28%), and enteritis (24%). In conclusion, strategic use of large quantities of straw reduced the number of stillborn piglets per litter by 27% (p=0.007). Under the conditions studied, the pre-weaning mortality of liveborn piglets was not affected by treatment; however, the distribution of post-mortem findings differed with fewer piglets dying due to starvation and more due to crushing and enteritis in STRAW litters.

Large quantities of straw at farrowing prevents bruising and increases weight gain in piglets.

Two major welfare issues in current pig production are the lack of nesting material for farrowing sows and poor claw health in suckling piglets. Therefore, a strategic method to supply loose housed sows with large quantities of straw at farrowing has been developed by Swedish piglet-producing farmers. The objective of this cohort study was to estimate the effect of a large quantity of straw (15-20 kg) supplied before farrowing compared to limited daily amounts (0.5-1 kg) on bruising and growth performance in pre-weaning piglets. On each of four commercial piglet-producing farms in south-west Sweden, one batch of sows was studied during two consecutive lactations. At inclusion, sows were randomly assigned to two treatment groups, and sows remaining in the batch during the second lactation switched treatment group. In the STRAW group (n=181 litters) sows were provided with 15-20 kg of chopped straw 2 days prior to expected farrowing. Sows in the CONTROL group (n=182 litters) received 0.5-1 kg of chopped straw on a daily basis plus 2 kg for nest building when the stockperson judged the sow to be about to farrow. Piglets were individually weighed within 36 h after birth, at 3-7 days after birth and at weaning. On day 3-7, limbs and feet were clinically examined for the presence and location of lesions. In conclusion, the provision of 15-20 kg of straw 2 days prior to farrowing effectively prevents the piglets from developing skin abrasions (IRR=0.38) and soft heel/sole erosions (IRR=0.08-0.35). We also conclude that the strategic use of large quantities of straw has a positive effect on weight gain, increasing the expected mean body weight at weaning by 0.33 kg.

Pup mortality in laboratory mice--infanticide or not?

BACKGROUND: Despite being the most commonly used mammal in biomedical research, problems with perinatal mortality in mice have received little attention and the causes of pup death are still poorly known. Females are often housed alone with their litters and since the lost pups are generally eaten, it is commonly assumed that the mother has killed them. However, more detailed observations than have been reported previously in the literature are required to establish if the cause of death is infanticide. Litter loss can only be prevented efficiently after underlying causes have been carefully investigated and interpreted. The aim of this study was to investigate if females actively kill their pups by observing the behaviour of females and pups in litters that later were lost. We used video recordings of females that lost their entire litter to observe females in detail from parturition until the pups died. In total, 10 C57BL/6 females (wildtype and the knockouts Hfe-/- and ß2m-/-) were studied, housed in Makrolon II cages with or without access to a small amount of nesting material. RESULTS: Three of the females had pups that were never seen moving, and another three females had one or two pups that never moved, indicating that some pups were most likely still-born. In five females with live-born pups, detailed observations from the time when a pup was last seen moving until it died were possible to carry out. We observed females eating dead offspring and interacting with both moving and dead pups. However, we never observed a pup stop moving when manipulated by the female, nor were any wounds seen in the pups. Hence, we found no evidence of infanticide when studying females that had lost their entire litter. CONCLUSION: These results suggest that other causes than infanticide plays a major role in mouse pup death, and stress the need for more systematic and careful investigations of the causality of litter loss.

Intensity of oestrus signalling is the most relevant indicator for animal well-being in high-producing dairy cows.

Full signalling of oestrous behaviour is vital for proper timing of AI and good reproductive performance, currently jeopardized by shorter observations of oestrus behaviour. Alternative indicators including progesterone (P(4)) recordings on-farm are tested. Oestrous intensity of 37 heifers (H) and 30 1st-parity dairy cows (C(1)) either Swedish Red (32) or Swedish Holstein (35) with high genetic potential for milk production, was studied in relation to AI. P(4)-levels in blood or milk were monitored on-farm at 0, 7, and 20 d post-AI with a portable ELISA reader (eProCheck(800)). Avoidance distance and body condition were scored at day 7, and pregnancy diagnosed by P(4) (day 20) and trans-rectal palpation (day 50). More heifers (46%) than C(1)-cows (10%) showed standing oestrus (strongest intensity, P < 0.05), leading to higher pregnancy rate at d50 (72% versus 37% for C1, P < 0.01) and calving rate (H: 64%, C1: 33%, P < 0.05). Avoidance distances were short (<1 m), reflecting good human-animal interaction. Visually-recorded standing oestrus yielded 4.8 fold higher odds of pregnancy, respectively 4.6-fold higher odds of calving. On-farm P4-recordings had complementary value yet less accuracy. Intensity of oestrus signalling relates to animal well-being, reflected in pregnancy-to-term being a good indicator for optimal welfare in high-producing dairy cattle.

Veterinary surgeons' attitudes towards physician-assisted suicide: an empirical study of Swedish experts on euthanasia.

AIM: To examine the hypothesis that knowledge about physician-assisted suicide (PAS) and euthanasia is associated with a more restrictive attitude towards PAS. DESIGN: A questionnaire about attitudes towards PAS, including prioritization of arguments pro and contra, was sent to Swedish veterinary surgeons. The results were compared with those from similar surveys of attitudes among the general public and physicians. PARTICIPANTS: All veterinary surgeons who were members of the Swedish Veterinary Association and had provided an email address (n=2421). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Similarities or differences in response pattern between veterinary surgeons, physicians and the general public. RESULTS: The response pattern among veterinary surgeons and the general public was almost similar in all relevant aspects. Of the veterinarians 75% (95% CI 72% to 78%) were in favour of PAS, compared with 73% (95% CI 69% to 77%) among the general public. Only 10% (95% CI 5% to 15%) of the veterinary surgeons were against PAS, compared with 12% (95% CI 5% to 19%) among the general public. Finally, 15% (95% CI 10% to 21%) of veterinarians were undecided, compared with 15% (95% CI 8% to 22%) among the general public. Physicians had a more restrictive attitude to PAS than the general public. CONCLUSIONS: Since veterinary surgeons have frequent practical experience of euthanasia in animals, they do have knowledge about what euthanasia really is. Veterinary surgeons and the general public had an almost similar response pattern. Accordingly it seems difficult to maintain that knowledge about euthanasia is unambiguously associated with a restrictive attitude towards PAS.

Maximum lying bout duration affects the occurrence of shoulder lesions in sows.

Shoulder lesions are caused by tissue breakdown of the skin and/or underlying tissue as a result of long lasting pressure. The lesions are commonly seen in sows during the period of lactation and contribute to poor animal welfare as well as affecting the consumers' attitudes towards the swine industry. The aim of this study was to investigate the correlation between prolonged recumbency during early lactation and development of shoulder lesions, in particular the lying bout time. Eighteen sows of Swedish Landrace were observed for 24 hours during the day of farrowing and day 2, 4, 9 and 11 after farrowing in May 2009. The data were analysed for correlations between the duration of the longest observed uninterrupted lying bout and the prevalence of shoulder lesions recorded at weaning (week 5).In the study, shoulder lesions were observed in eight of the eighteen sows at the time of weaning. The total lying time of the sows was highest on day 0 and day 2, when the proportion of time spent in lateral recumbency over the 24-hour period was on average 80 percent. The longest lying bout had an average duration of 6,3 hours (right side) and 7,2 hours (left side). A significant correlation (Spearman rank coefficient = 0,88; P < 0,05) was found between the duration of the longest observed uninterrupted lying bout and the occurrence of shoulder lesions on right side among well conditioned sows with a low amount of straw present at farrowing. This suggests that avoiding prolonged uninterrupted recumbency contributes to the prevention of shoulder lesions in sows.

Expert opinion as 'validation' of risk assessment applied to calf welfare.

BACKGROUND: Recently, a Risk Assessment methodology was applied to animal welfare issues in a report of the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) on intensively housed calves. METHODS: Because this is a new and potentially influential approach to derive conclusions on animal welfare issues, a so-called semantic-modelling type 'validation' study was conducted by asking expert scientists, who had been involved or quoted in the report, to give welfare scores for housing systems and for welfare hazards. RESULTS: Kendall's coefficient of concordance among experts (n = 24) was highly significant (P < 0.001), but low (0.29 and 0.18 for housing systems and hazards respectively). Overall correlations with EFSA scores were significant only for experts with a veterinary or mixed (veterinary and applied ethological) background. Significant differences in welfare scores were found between housing systems, between hazards, and between experts with different backgrounds. For example, veterinarians gave higher overall welfare scores for housing systems than ethologists did, probably reflecting a difference in their perception of animal welfare. Systems with the lowest scores were veal calves kept individually in so-called "baby boxes" (veal crates) or in small groups, and feedlots. A suckler herd on pasture was rated as the best for calf welfare. The main hazards were related to underfeeding, inadequate colostrum intake, poor stockperson education, insufficient space, inadequate roughage, iron deficiency, inadequate ventilation, poor floor conditions and no bedding. Points for improvement of the Risk Assessment applied to animal welfare include linking information, reporting uncertainty and transparency about underlying values. CONCLUSION: The study provides novel information on expert opinion in relation to calf welfare and shows that Risk Assessment applied to animal welfare can benefit from a semantic modelling approach.

Increasing daily feeding occasions in restricted feeding strategies does not improve performance or well being of fattening pigs.

BACKGROUND: The natural feeding behaviour of the pig is searching for feed by rooting activities throughout the day; self-feeding pigs randomly space their eating and drinking periods throughout the day consuming ten to twelve meals per day. Pigs in conventional fattening pig production are normally fed 2-3 times daily with the feed consumed within 15 minutes. The aim of this study was to determine if more frequent feedings could improve the performance of conventionally kept fattening pigs. METHODS: The experiment was carried out on 360 fattening pigs (27-112 kg live weight), weighed and assigned to pens stratified by weight and sex. Each treatment group consisted of 180 pigs, allocated to 20 pens with nine pigs in each pen. To evaluate how more feeding occasions affects performance and well-being the pigs were divided into two groups and fed three (control group) or nine (treatment group) times daily. The same total amount of liquid feed was fed to each group and the feed ration was correlated to the live weight of the pigs. All weight and slaughter recordings were made individually and recordings of feed consumption were made pen-wise. At slaughter the stomach of each pig was examined for lesions in the pars oesophagea and scored on a scale from 1-6. RESULTS: Frequent feeding occasions influenced both performance and status of gastric lesions of the pigs adversely. Pigs in the treatment group grew slower compared to pigs in the control group; 697 g/day (+/- 6.76) versus 804 g/day (+/- 6.78) (P < 0.001) with no difference in within-pen variation. There was also a lower prevalence of gastric lesions within pigs in the control group (2.4 (+/- 0.12) compared to 3.0 (+/- 0.12) (P < 0.01)). There was a positive correlation between gastric lesions in the treatment group and daily weight gain (r = 0.19; P < 0.01). CONCLUSION: Increased daily feeding occasions among group housed pigs resulted in a poorer daily weight gain and increased mean gastric lesion score as compared with pigs fed three times daily. This may be a consequence of more frequently occurring competition for feed in the treatment group. The present study does not support increased daily feeding occasions in fattening pigs.

Maternal behavior in pigs.

When sows kept under commercial conditions were put into crates in the early 1960s, the neuro-endocrine regulation of the maternal behavior in these domestic animals was disputed. Thus, the study of sow maternal behavior intensified and today a significant body of knowledge has accumulated to support the hormonal regulation of sow maternal behavior. The onset of nest building is associated with a periparturient decline in progesterone, an increase in prolactin and a major rise in plasma concentrations of PGF2alpha the day before parturition. Some nest building behaviors, such as pawing and gathering straw, have been found to correlate with changes in the levels of progesterone, prolactin and somatostatin. The duration of the birth process correlates negatively with peripheral oxytocin levels. During lactation, the stimuli from the piglets affect the release of several hormones which not only regulate the let down of milk but also sow metabolism and mammary milk production. The sow's nursing behavior ensures an even distribution of milk to her piglets. The piglets suckling behavior, in turn, is mainly a way to communicate their individual nutritional needs.

Food 21: a research program looking for measures and tools to increase food chain sustainability.

Food 21, an interdisciplinary research program encompassing the whole agro-food chain, was conducted in Sweden during 1997-2004. The challenges undertaken were to come up with environmental tools and solutions to existing nonsustainable practices along the entire food chain. This required close collaboration between the scientists and the food chain stakeholders. A set of goals characterizing sustainable food production is presented in this paper. Synthesis and systems analysis were the main tools used to analyze the sustainability of proposed changes. In this introduction we give an overview of the Food 21 concept and highlight some results. For example, we found that organic farming and organic products were not in general superior to conventional products and practices with respect to environmental impact and product quality. We also summarize the management experiences in this article, since we consider them to be rather unique and since they contributed to the overall success of the program.

Selection for increased production and the welfare of dairy cows: are new breeding goals needed?

In many European countries, milk production per cow has more than doubled in the last 40 years. The increase in production has been accompanied by declining ability to reproduce, increasing incidence of health problems, and declining longevity in modern dairy cows. Genetic selection for increased milk yield increasingly is viewed as increasing profit at the expense of reducing animal welfare. The economic future of the dairy industry is related directly to public acceptance of its breeding and production practices. It is important to the dairy industry that welfare problems should be addressed before there is widespread condemnation of breeding and management practices. A new breeding goal aimed at improving fitness and tolerance of metabolic stress is necessary to prevent the decrease in the quality of life of dairy cows and instead, perhaps, enhance it.

Integration of natural behavior in housing systems.

This paper deals with how the natural behavior of animals kept for production can be integrated when planning new housing systems or making changes to existing housing systems. Natural behavior can be defined as the repertoire of different behaviors animals show when kept in environments where they can carry out behaviors created in the evolutionary process. Motivation and innate behaviors are important aspects of natural behavior, and hindering them may lead to abnormal behavior and stress. One should first get a basic knowledge about the species-specific behavior in the wild or a seminatural environment. Thereafter, key stimuli and key features for normal behavior should be worked out, where after a reduction in space, development of a pen, scientific testing, modification, and finally testing the function in a larger scale should be carried out. Examples of housing of calves during the milk period and housing of sows around farrowing are given.