Continuity and change in the Mediterranean medical tradition: Ruta spp. (rutaceae) in Hippocratic medicine and present practices.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: Ruta is a genus of Rutaceae family. It features mainly shrubby plants, native to the Mediterranean region and present in traditional medicine of this region since Antiquity. The three most diffused species Ruta chalepensis L., Ruta graveolens L., and Ruta montana (L.) L., are morphologically poorly differentiated and were probably interchangeably used during Antiquity. AIM OF THE STUDY: Hippocratic and contemporary medical applications of the Ruta genus in the Mediterranean were compared to check if they result from a continuity of use from the ancient times to nowadays. RESULTS: Ruta spp. was mainly employed in medical preparations by Hippocratic physicians as an abortifacient and emmenagogue. In addition to gynaecological conditions, in several treatises of the Corpus HippocraticumRuta spp. were also recommended as a specific remedy against pulmonary diseases. Ruta spp. leaves and also roots and seeds, were administered for internal use by Hippocratic physicians after having been soaked in wine or mixed with honey or its derivatives. Contemporary traditional uses of Ruta spp. have been assessed in detail in the whole Mediterranean area. CONCLUSION: Nowadays, Ruta spp. is used to treat different conditions but, as a general rule, the external uses are preferred as the toxicity of the plant is widely acknowledged.

The history of science: defending epistemology with new technologies.

The leap in scientific discoveries made with new computer technologies can be compared to the invention of the printing press and expanding scientific thought in the 16th century. Nowadays, new communication technologies offering a multimedia contribution illustrate the fascinating reality of scientific exploration even for individuals who can otherwise not be reached. Since rare books are usually kept in libraries with limited access, the strict safekeeping, however, often overrides the need for academic consultation. Moreover, rare manuscripts are often illustrated with figures that are just as important as the written texts, but which are also unavailable. We combined our expertise in biology, medicine and multimedia to produce a CD-ROM with a hyperlinked text on the scientific revolution of the 16th century, focusing on the early conceptualization of life sciences in Europe. In this paper we show the first page of Malpighi's Epistle II (De pulmonibus - on the Lungs) as it appeared in Opera Omnia published in London (1686) by the Royal Society.

Plants as a source of salt.

Ecological and ethnobotanical aspects of some halophylous plants are presented. These plants possess several morphophysiological adaptations to face salinity in their habitats. They are a source of salt and could represent new potential crops in saline environments.

Medicinal plants for the treatment of urogenital tract pathologies according to Dioscorides' De Materia Medica.

The De Materia Medica of the Greek Dioscorides reports about 200 plants used for the treatment of pathologies of the urogenital tract during the 1st century AD. On the basis of explicit and implicit affirmations by Dioscorides, a theoretical system concerning the specific properties of these plants has been attempted. Comparison of the species reported by Dioscorides and Pliny the Elder for renal affections does not support the thesis of a close relationship between De Materia Medica and the Naturalis Historia.

Joseph Jacob Plenck (1735-1807).

Joseph Jacob Plenck (1735-1807) is considered to be the forerunner of modern European dermatology, who also compiled a list of about 800 plants with medicinal uses. Of these about 115 have diuretic properties and are currently included in various pharmacopeias. They were traditionally used to cure ascites of various causes, in urolithiasis, nephritis, cystitis, bladder ulcers, strangury, urinary retention and incontinence. Few of these plants have been fully investigated by modern medicinal chemists, and many are worthy of further study.

Useful plants in renal therapy according to Pliny the Elder.

The Naturalis Historia of Pliny the Elder consists of 37 books, of which 16 are devoted to botany. About 900 plants are named, but many names are synonyms and identification is often impossible. Where identification is possible it is achieved by comparison of the actual names with the vernacular names in related languages or by indirect evidence from their medical use. In this way 130 plants used in renal therapy during Roman times can be identified. Many were eaten as part of the diet, and the distinction between medicinal and edible plants was not clearcut. Pliny was also the first author to comment that wild species are more active than cultivated ones. Most of the plants reported by Pliny are also mentioned by Dioscorides, and more than 30 of them were also listed by Plenck. Several are still quoted in modern pharmacopeias.

Potential allelochemicals fromRuta graveolens L. and their action on radish seeds.

An aqueous extract ofRuta graveolens L. (250 g/liter) was tested for its allelopathic activity in vitro on radish germination and radicle growth in light and darkness. It caused a delay in the onset and a decrease in the rate of germination (40%) in the light. The photoinhibition of germination was accompanied by an inhibition of water uptake into the seed. Furthermore, the inhibition of radicle growth was slightly higher in the light than in darkness. Three potential allelochemicals, biologically active in the light, were isolated from the extract: 5-methoxypsoralen (5-MOP), 8-methoxypsoralen (8-MOP), and 4-hydroxy-coumarin at concentrations of 10(-4) M, 2×10(-4) M, and 0.4 ×10(-5) M respectively. At a concentration of 2×10(-4) M, 5-MOP was the most potent inhibitor, decreasing radish germination to 32% and radicle growth to 17% with respect to control. Microscopic observations of radish seeds treated with 5-MOP suggest that this substance changes the swelling of the seed coat and aleurone layer, which precedes radicle protrusion.

Inhibition of radish germination and root growth by coumarin and phenylpropanoids.

Thirteen natural and synthetic phenylpropanoids as well as coumarin (2×10(4)M) were tested for their biological activity on radish germination and subsequent root growth in light and darkness. Coumarin was the most potent inhibitor. With some exceptions, phenylpropanoids with a carboxylic group in the side chain inhibited root growth. Coumarin was formed spontaneously by photooxidation of 2-hydroxycinnamic acid. Microscopic observations of root treated with coumarin suggest that this substance inhibits the elongation of cells of the differentiating zone of the root.

Potential allelochemicals fromPistia stratiotes L.

Among the substances isolated from ethyl ether extract ofPistia stratiotes L., linoleic acid,γ-linolenic acid, (12R,9Z,13E,15Z)-l2-hydroxy- 9,13,15-octadecatrienoicacid, (9S,10E,12Z,15Z)-9-hydroxy-10,12,15-octadecatrienoic acid, α-asarone, and 24S-ethyl-4,22-cholestadiene-3,6-dione were found to inhibit the growth of some microalgae in solid medium. Toxicity of α-asarone on the growth of sensitive algal strains in liquid medium is discussed.

In vitro algal growth inhibition by phytotoxins ofTypha latifolia L.

The ether extract ofTypha latifolia L. inhibited the growth of some microalgae. Among the substances chromatographically isolated and characterized from the ether extract, three steroids [ß-sitosterol, (20S) 24-methylenlophenol, and stigmast-4-ene-3,6-dione] and three fatty acids [α- linolenic, linoleic, and an unidentified C8∶2] were found to inhibit the growth of some microalgae tested. A selective effect of these substance on blue-green algae (particularly on T 625Synechococcus leopoliensis and on T 1444Anabaena flosaquae) was observed.

Studies on utilization of 2-ketoglutarate, glutamate and other amino acids by the unicellular alga Cyanidium caldarium.

Two strains of Cyandium caladarium which possess different biochemical and nutritional characteristics were examined with respect to their ability to utilize amino acids or 2-ketoglutarate as substrates. One strain utilizes alanine, glutamate or aspartate as nitrogen sources, and glutamate, alanine, or 2-ketoglutarate as carbon and energy sources for growth in the dark. The growth rate in the dark on 2-ketoglutarate is almost twice as high or higher than that on glutamate or alanine. During growth or incubation of this alga on amino acids, large amounts of ammonia are formed; however, ammonia formation is strongly inhibited by 2-ketoglutarate. The capacity of the alga and develops fully only when the cells are grown or incubated in the presence of glutamate.

Observations on enzymes of ammonia assimilation in two different strains of Cyanidium caldarium.

Two strains of Cyanidium caldarium, one able to utilize nitrate as a substrate, and the other not, were tested for the presence of enzymes of ammonia assimilation. The nitrate-assimilating strain exhibits glutamate dehydrogenase activity. By contrast, the other strain lacks glutamate dehydrogenase; it possesses high alanine dehydrogenase and L-alanine aminotransferase activities which suggest that this strain may incorporate ammonia through reductive amination of pyruvate and may form glutamate from 2-ketoglutarate by a transamination reaction with alanine. Neither strain reveals glutamate synthase activity. Both strains contain similar levels of glutamine synthetase.

Electron donors and inhibitors of nitrate reductase from Cyanidium caldarium.

Studies on nitrate reductase (NAD(P)H:nitrate oxidoreductases EC 1.6.6.2) of Cyanidium caldarium revealed that the enzyme is inhibited by excess of electron donor, NADPH, reduced benzylviologen and FMN. Also dithionite, used to reduce benzylviologen and FMN, inactivates nitrate reductase: however, FMN at an optimal concentration and nitrate, added before the dithionite, protect the enzyme against this inactivation. Cyanide, cyanate and carbamyl phosphate inhibit the enzyme competitively with respect to nitrate, and Ki values are reported. Organic mercurials, 0.1 mM, act preferentially on NADPH activity, whereas Ag+ and Hg-2+ at the same concentration inactivate 80--90% of the benzylviologen and FMN activities. ADP is very poor inhibitor. Urea 4 M in 2 h destroys 90% of the NADPH activity and only 30% of the benzylviologen and FMN activities. The apparent Km values for NADPH, benzylviologen, FMN and nitrate have been determined.