Volatile drug use and overdose during the first year of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States.

BACKGROUND: Overdose deaths in the United States rose substantially during the COVID-19 pandemic. Disruptions to the drug supply and service provision introduced significant instability into the lives of people who use drugs (PWUD), including volatility in their drug use behaviors. METHODS: Using data from a multistate survey of PWUD, we examined sociodemographic and drug use correlates of volatile drug use during COVID-19 using multivariable linear regression. In a multivariable logistic regression model, we assessed the association between volatile drug use and past month overdose adjusting for sociodemographic and other drug use characteristics. RESULTS: Among participants, 52% were male, 50% were white, 29% had less than a high school education, and 25% were experiencing homelessness. Indicators of volatile drug use were prevalent: 53% wanted to use more drugs; 45% used more drugs; 43% reported different triggers for drug use, and 23% used drugs that they did not typically use. 14% experienced a past-month overdose. In adjusted models, hunger (ß=0.47, 95% CI: 0.21-0.72), transactional sex (ß=0.50, 95% CI: 0.06-0.94), and the number of drugs used (ß=0.16, 95% CI: 0.07-0.26) were associated with increased volatile drug use. Volatile drug use was associated with increased overdose risk (aOR=1.42, 95% CI: 1.17-1.71) in the adjusted model. CONCLUSIONS: Volatile drug use during the COVID-19 pandemic was common, appeared to be driven by structural vulnerability, and was associated with increased overdose risk. Addressing volatile drug use through interventions that ensure structural stability for PWUD and a safer drug supply is essential for mitigating the ongoing overdose crisis.

Factors associated with daily use of benzodiazepines/tranquilizers and opioids among people who use drugs.

BACKGROUND: Co-use of benzodiazepines and opioids significantly increases fatal overdose risk, yet few studies have examined co-use of these drugs when obtained both with and without a prescription. We examined associations of daily co-use of prescribed benzodiazepines/tranquilizers (BZD/TRQ) and prescribed and nonprescribed opioids among people who use street opioids (PWUO). METHODS: PWUO (N = 417) were recruited from Baltimore City and neighboring Anne Arundel County, Maryland, and surveyed on sociodemographic characteristics, structural vulnerabilities, healthcare access and utilization, substance use, and overdose experiences. Multivariable logistic regression was used to identify factors associated with self-reported co-use. RESULTS: Participants were 46 years old on average, and predominantly Black (74%) males (62%). Daily co-use was reported by 22%. In multivariable analyses, odds of co-use were significantly higher among participants who did not have a high school degree/GED (adjusted odds ratio [aOR]: 1.71, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.02-2.88), endorsed receiving mental health treatment in the past 6 months (aOR: 2.13, 95% CI: 1.28-3.56), reported daily use of powdered cocaine (aOR: 3.57, 95% CI: 1.98-6.45), and synthetic cannabinoids (aOR: 3.11, 95% CI: 1.40-6.93). Odds of co-use were significantly lower among Black participants compared to white participants (aOR: 0.39, 95% CI: 0.19-0.82). CONCLUSIONS AND SCIENTIFIC SIGNIFICANCE: Clinicians working with PWUO or who prescribe BZDs or opioids should screen patients who use cocaine or synthetic cannabinoids, have low level of educational attainment, or recently accessed mental health services, as these patients may be at higher risk for daily co-use of BZD/TRQ and opioids, and therefore lethal overdose.

Exploring trauma and wellbeing of people who use drugs after witnessing overdose: A qualitative study.

BACKGROUND: The national overdose crisis is often quantified by overdose deaths, but understanding the traumatic impact for those who witness and respond to overdoses can help elucidate mental health needs and opportunities for intervention for this population. Many who respond to overdoses are people who use drugs. This study adds to the literature on how people who use drugs qualitatively experience trauma resulting from witnessing and responding to overdose, through the lens of the Trauma-Informed Theory of Individual Health Behavior. METHODS: We conducted 60-min semi-structured, in-depth phone interviews. Participants were recruited from six states and Washington, DC in March-April 2022. Participants included 17 individuals who witnessed overdose(s) during the COVID-19 pandemic. The interview guide was shaped by theories of trauma. The codebook was developed using a priori codes from the interview guide; inductive codes were added during content analysis. Transcripts were coded using ATLAS.ti. RESULTS: A vast majority reported trauma from witnessing overdoses. Participants reported that the severity of trauma varied by contextual factors such as the closeness of the relationship to the person overdosing or whether the event was their first experience witnessing an overdose. Participants often described symptoms of trauma including rumination, guilt, and hypervigilance. Some reported normalization of witnessing overdoses due to how common overdoses were, while some acknowledged overdoses will never be "normal." The impacts of witnessing overdose on drug use behaviors varied from riskier substance use to increased motivation for treatment and safer drug use practices. CONCLUSION: Recognizing the traumatic impact of witnessed overdoses is key to effectively addressing the full range of sequelae of the overdose crisis. Trauma-informed approaches should be central for service providers when they approach this subject with clients, with awareness of how normalization can reduce help-seeking behaviors and the need for psychological aftercare. We found increased motivation for behavior change after witnessing, which presents opportunity for intervention.

High willingness to use overdose prevention sites among suburban people who use drugs who do not inject.

INTRODUCTION: Overdose prevention sites (OPS) are evidence-based interventions to improve public health, yet implementation has been limited in the USA due to a variety of legal impediments. Studies in various US settings have shown a high willingness to use OPS among urban and rural people who inject drugs, but data among people who use drugs (PWUD) via non-injection routes of administration in suburban areas are lacking. METHODS: We utilized cross-sectional data from a sample of suburban PWUD who have not injected drugs in the past 3 months (N = 126) in Anne Arundel County, Maryland. We assessed PWUDs' likelihood of using a hypothetical OPS and perceived potential barriers to accessing OPS. We tested for associations between sociodemographic characteristics, drug use, service access, and overdose experiences with willingness to utilize OPS. FINDINGS: Participants' median age was 42, and the majority were men (67%) and non-Hispanic Black (79%). Sixty-six percent reported willingness to use an OPS. Concerns about confidentiality (29%), arrest (20%), and transportation costs (22%) were the most anticipated barriers to using OPS. Men (75% vs 55%, p = 0.015), participants who used heroin (53% vs 32%, p = 0.017), and participants who used multiple overdose prevention behaviors (e.g., using fentanyl test strips) (36% vs 19%, p = 0.006) were more likely to report willingness to use OPS. CONCLUSION: Most suburban non-injecting PWUD in the sample were willing to use an OPS. OPS implementation strategies in suburban settings should be tailored to reach PWUD via non-injection routes of administration while meeting the unique needs of suburban contexts.

A qualitative exploration of barriers and facilitators to drug treatment services among people who inject drugs in west Virginia.

BACKGROUND: The opioid overdose crisis in the USA has called for expanding access to evidence-based substance use treatment programs, yet many barriers limit the ability of people who inject drugs (PWID) to engage in these programs. Predominantly rural states have been disproportionately affected by the opioid overdose crisis while simultaneously facing diminished access to drug treatment services. The purpose of this study is to explore barriers and facilitators to engagement in drug treatment among PWID residing in a rural county in West Virginia. METHODS: From June to July 2018, in-depth interviews (n = 21) that explored drug treatment experiences among PWID were conducted in Cabell County, West Virginia. Participants were recruited from locations frequented by PWID such as local service providers and public parks. An iterative, modified constant comparison approach was used to code and synthesize interview data. RESULTS: Participants reported experiencing a variety of barriers to engaging in drug treatment, including low thresholds for dismissal, a lack of comprehensive support services, financial barriers, and inadequate management of withdrawal symptoms. However, participants also described several facilitators of treatment engagement and sustained recovery. These included the use of medications for opioid use disorder and supportive health care workers/program staff. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings suggest that a range of barriers exist that may limit the abilities of rural PWID to successfully access and remain engaged in drug treatment in West Virginia. Improving the public health of rural PWID populations will require expanding access to evidence-based drug treatment programs that are tailored to participants' individual needs.

Interest in treatment with injectable diacetylmorphine among people who use opioids in Baltimore City, Maryland (USA).

INTRODUCTION: Treatment for opioid use disorder (OUD) with diacetylmorphine is an evidence-based form of drug treatment, but it is not available in the United States (US). Better understanding acceptability of treatment with injectable diacetylmorphine among people who use opioids (PWUO) in the US may expedite future initiatives designed to engage persons in this form of treatment should it become available. The purpose of this research is to examine factors associated with interest in treatment with injectable diacetylmorphine among a sample of PWUO in the US. METHODS: Data are from a cross-sectional study of PWUO in Baltimore City, Maryland. Participants were given a brief description of treatment with injectable diacetylmorphine and then asked to rate their level of interest. We used Poisson regression with robust variance to assess factors associated with interest in treatment with injectable diacetylmorphine. RESULTS: The average age of participants was 48 years, 41% were women, and most (76%) identified as non-Hispanic, Black. The most commonly used substances were non-injection heroin (76%), opioid pain relievers (73%), and non-injection crack/cocaine (73%). Two-thirds of participants (68%) indicated interest in treatment with injectable diacetylmorphine. Factors significantly associated with interest in injectable diacetylmorphine treatment included: having at least a high school education (adjusted prevalence ratio [aPR]: 1.23; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.04-1.45), not having health insurance (aPR: 1.23; 95% CI: 1.06-1.44), having ever overdosed (aPR: 1.20; 95% CI: 1.01-1.42), and past utilization of medications for opioid use disorder (aPR: 1.22; 95% CI: 1.01-1.47). Recent non-injection cocaine use was inversely associated with interest in treatment with injectable diacetylmorphine (aPR 0.80; 95% CI: 0.68-0.94). CONCLUSION: The majority of participants reported interest in treatment with injectable diacetylmorphine. Given worsening trends in the addiction and overdose crisis in the US, treatment with injectable diacetylmorphine should be considered as another evidence-based option for treating OUD.KEY MESSAGESInterest in treatment with injectable diacetylmorphine was high among a sample of people who use opioids in the United States.Factors associated with increased interest in treatment with injectable diacetylmorphine included having at least a high school education, having ever overdosed, and not having health insurance.Past utilization of medications for opioid use disorder was associated with interest in treatment with injectable diacetylmorphine.

A scoping review of implementation considerations for harm reduction vending machines.

BACKGROUND: Community-based harm reduction vending machines (HRVM) are not new to the field of public health; numerous countries have implemented them in response to the needs of people who use drugs over the last three decades. However, until recently, few existed in the United States. Given the rapidity with which communities are standing up harm reduction vending machines, there is a pressing need for a consolidated examination of implementation evidence. This scoping review summarizes existing literature using multiple implementation science frameworks. METHODS: The scoping review was conducted in five stages including (1) Identify the research question; (2) Identify relevant studies; (3) Select the publications based on inclusion/exclusion criteria; (4) Review and extract data; and, (5) Summarize results. PubMed, Embase, and Web of Science were searched and authors screened publications in English from any year. Data were extracted by applying implementation constructs from RE-AIM and the Consolidated Framework for Implementation Research (CFIR). Both frameworks provided a useful lens through which to develop knowledge about the facilitators and barriers to HRVM implementation. The review is reported according to PRISMA guidelines. RESULTS: After applying the full inclusion and exclusion criteria, including the intervention of interest ("vending machines") and population of interest ("people who use drugs"), a total of 22 studies were included in the scoping review. None of the studies reported on race, making it difficult to retroactively apply a racial equity lens. Among those articles that examined effectiveness, the outcomes were mixed between clear effectiveness and inconclusive results. Evidence emerged, however, to address all CFIR constructs, and positive outcomes were observed from HRVM's after-hour availability and increased program reach. RECOMMENDATIONS: HRVM implementation best practices include maximizing accessibility up to 24 h, 7 days a week, offering syringe disposal options, ensuring capability of data collection, and allowing for anonymity of use. Organizations that implement HRVM should establish strong feedback loops between them, their program participants, and the broader community upfront. Considerations for future research include rigorous study designs to evaluate effectiveness outcomes (e.g. reduced drug overdose deaths) and examination of HRVM reach among ethnic and racial communities.

Factors associated with receptive injection equipment sharing among people who inject drugs: findings from a multistate study at the start of the COVID-19 pandemic.

BACKGROUND: Receptive injection equipment sharing (i.e., injecting with syringes, cookers, rinse water previously used by another person) plays a central role in the transmission of infectious diseases (e.g., HIV, viral hepatitis) among people who inject drugs. Better understanding these behaviors in the context of COVID-19 may afford insights about potential intervention opportunities in future health crises. OBJECTIVE: This study examines factors associated with receptive injection equipment sharing among people who inject drugs in the context of COVID-19. METHODS: From August 2020 to January 2021, people who inject drugs were recruited from 22 substance use disorder treatment programs and harm reduction service providers in nine states and the District of Columbia to complete a survey that ascertained how the COVID-19 pandemic affected substance use behaviors. We used logistic regression to identify factors associated with people who inject drugs having recently engaged in receptive injection equipment sharing. RESULTS: One in four people who inject drugs in our sample reported having engaged in receptive injection equipment sharing in the past month. Factors associated with greater odds of receptive injection equipment sharing included: having a high school education or equivalent (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] = 2.14, 95% confidence interval [95% CI] 1.24, 3.69), experiencing hunger at least weekly (aOR = 1.89, 95% CI 1.01, 3.56), and number of drugs injected (aOR = 1.15, 95% CI 1.02, 1.30). Older age (aOR = 0.97, 95% CI 0.94, 1.00) and living in a non-metropolitan area (aOR = 0.43, 95% CI 0.18, 1.02) were marginally associated with decreased odds of receptive injection equipment sharing. CONCLUSIONS: Receptive injection equipment sharing was relatively common among our sample during the early months of the COVID-19 pandemic. Our findings contribute to existing literature that examines receptive injection equipment sharing by demonstrating that this behavior was associated with factors identified in similar research that occurred before COVID. Eliminating high-risk injection practices among people who inject drugs requires investments in low-threshold and evidence-based services that ensure persons have access to sterile injection equipment.

Impact of a Community Empowerment Intervention on Sexually Transmitted Infections Among Female Sex Workers in Baltimore, Maryland.

BACKGROUND: Female sex workers ( FSWs) are vulnerable to a number of health issues, but often delay seeking health care due to structural barriers. Multiservice drop-in centers have been shown to increase FSW access to health services globally, but their impact on FSW in the United States is lacking. This study seeks to evaluate the effect of a community-level empowerment intervention (the multiservice drop-in SPARC center) on cumulative sexually transmitted infections (STIs) among FSW in a city in the United States. METHODS: Between September 2017 and January 2019, 385 FSWs were recruited in Baltimore. Participants from areas served by SPARC were recruited to the intervention; other areas of Baltimore were the control. Follow-up occurred at 6, 12, and 18 months. The primary outcome is cumulative STI (ie, positive gonorrhea or chlamydia test at any follow-up). We tested effect modification by condomless sex with paying clients reported at baseline. Logistic regressions with propensity score weighting were used to estimate intervention effect, accounting for loss to follow-up, with bootstrap confidence intervals. RESULTS: Participants completed 713 follow-up study visits (73%, 70%, 64% retention at 6, 12, and 18 months, respectively). Baseline STI prevalence was 28% and cumulative STI prevalence across follow-ups was 26%; these both did not differ between control and intervention communities in bivariate analyses. After adjusting for covariates, FSW in the intervention had a borderline-significant decrease in odds of cumulative STI compared with control (odds ratio, 0.61, P = 0.09 ) . There was evidence of effect modification by baseline condomless sex, such that FSW in the intervention who reported condomless sex had lower odds of cumulative STI compared with FSW in the control community who also reported baseline condomless sex (odds ratio, 0.29; P = 0.04). CONCLUSIONS: Results demonstrate the value of a low-barrier, multiservice model on reducing STIs among the highest-risk FSW.Clinical Trial Number: NCT04413591.

Pivoting to the QUAD AIM-Lessons Learned From the Central Texas Market.

INTRODUCTION: Since 2009, the Military Health System (MHS) has represented its mission as that of attaining the Quadruple Aim (QUAD AIM): increased readiness, better health, better care, and low per capita costs. The journey to reach the four goals is challenging and ongoing. Leaders in the MHS's Central Texas Market (CTM) sought to understand and overcome the root-cause obstacles that interfered with achieving the QUAD AIM. This process required a self-critical and thoroughly objective review of the behavioral economics of the system. We hypothesized that two corporate behaviors fed upon each other to create a vicious downward spiral. First, as a socialized (salary-based) system, the enterprise has a built-in incentive that covertly competes with the attainment of the QUAD AIM. Because additional work does not result in any material gain for its workers, the system regulates to a comfortable flow. Second, centralized leaders defer important management controls to tactical teammates due to their special medical expertise. This corporate behavior makes overcoming the first one challenging-keeping realization of the QUAD AIM elusive. METHODS: Beginning in July of 2019, CTM leaders strove to replace the two identified corporate behaviors with more productive ones. First, in place of regulating to comfort, we directed teammates to focus wholly on achieving the QUAD AIM. Second, we exerted leadership from the top down to attain the QUAD AIM's four goals. Because the vicious cycle manifested itself differently in the realms of primary, inpatient, and specialty care, we adapted the application of our virtuous behaviors to match the problem set in each realm. In primary care, we replaced fee-for-service incentives with value-based ones. In inpatient care, we eliminated hidden incentives that resulted in inappropriate and unnecessary transfers. In specialty care, we consolidated the management of referrals, templating, and scheduling-taking central control of system productivity. The interventions in each realm required the introduction of new workflows, policies, and dashboards to ensure change. RESULTS: Over a 2-year period, the CTM made a quantum to leap toward attaining the QUAD AIM. In our community based primary care homes, we significantly improved our operations as quantified by the value-based metrics of patient satisfaction, Healthcare Effectiveness Data and Information Set (HEDIS) quality metrics, access to care, and leakage. In the inpatient realm, we decreased monthly transfers by 73% (110 s to 30 s) resulting in higher bed censuses and multiple downstream positive impacts. In specialty care, we demonstrated our ability to return our specialty service lines quickly to high levels of production in the coronavirus disease-2019 crisis. Each of these interventions demonstrated large-scale movement toward the QUAD AIM. CONCLUSIONS: The CTM's actions demonstrate that the QUAD AIM can be attained in military medicine. Doing so requires the recognition of two destructive corporate behaviors. Through decades of hardening, these corporate behaviors have been imprinted upon the MHS, making them practically invisible as guiding currents in economic behavior. Counteracting them with persistent regulation to the QUAD AIM facilitated by proactive top-down leadership offers a solution.

Increased solitary drug use during COVID-19: An unintended consequence of social distancing.

BACKGROUND: During the COVID-19 pandemic, overdose rates substantially increased in the United States. One possible contributor to this phenomenon may be solitary drug use resulting from social distancing efforts to prevent COVID-19 transmission. METHODS: We surveyed 458 people who use drugs (PWUD) who were recruited from harm reduction and drug treatment providers located in nine states and the District of Columbia. We assessed if solitary drug use had increased since the start of COVID-19. Associations between increased solitary drug use and sociodemographic characteristics, drug use characteristics, and COVID-19 prevention behaviors were examined using multiple logistic regression. RESULTS: Half the sample identified as men (52.7%), White (49.7%), and single (49.3%). The average age was 43.2 (SD:11.8) years. Two-thirds (66.8%) recently injected drugs. 44% reported increased solitary drug use since COVID-19. Significant correlates of increased solitary drug use included being single (adjusted Odds Ratio [aOR]=1.99, 95% Confidence Interval [CI]: 1.33, 2.98), increasing drug use (aOR=2.74, 95% CI: 1.72, 4.37), using more in private locations (aOR=1.91, 95% CI: 1.34, 2.72), and social distancing behaviors (aOR=1.31, 95% CI: 1.11, 1.54). Experiencing homelessness (aOR=0.45, 95% CI: 0.31, 0.65) and identifying as a sexual minority (aOR=0.53, 95% CI: 0.31, 0.93) were associated with being less likely to increase solitary drug use. CONCLUSIONS: Solitary drug use increased during the COVID-19 pandemic. Increases in solitary drug use, in the context of a drug market increasingly permeated by fentanyl, indicates an urgent need for comprehensive harm reduction interventions to reduce overdose mortality.

Factors Associated with HIV Testing Among People Who Inject Drugs: Findings from a Multistate Study at the Start of the COVID-19 Pandemic.

Few studies have examined HIV testing among people who inject drugs (PWID) during the COVID-19 pandemic. This study examines factors associated with PWID who have been recently (past six months) tested for HIV during the COVID-19 pandemic. PWID were recruited between August 2020 and January 2021 from 22 drug treatment and harm reduction programs in nine states and the District of Columbia. We used logistic regression to identify correlates of recent HIV testing among PWID (n = 289). Most (52.9%) PWID reported having been recently tested for HIV. Factors associated with recent HIV testing included: having attended college [adjusted odds ratio (aOR) 2.32, 95% confidence interval (95% CI) 1.32-4.10], weekly hunger (aOR 2.08, 95% CI 1.20-3.60), crystal methamphetamine injection (aOR 2.04, 95% CI 1.05-3.97), and non-metropolitan residence (aOR 0.33, 95% CI 0.13, 0.88). Findings suggest HIV testing initiatives should be expanded during times of crisis, such as global pandemics.

Overdose Experiences among People Who Inject Drugs in West Virginia: Personal Loss, Psychological Distress, Naloxone, and Fentanyl.

Background: As overdose remains a major public health concern in the United States, it is important to understand the experiences people who inject drugs (PWID) have with overdose. Past experiences during such emergencies are an important determinant of future behavior, including help seeking, which can be lifesaving. Methods: We explored experiences with overdose, using data from 21 in-depth interviews collected from PWID in a rural county in West Virginia (Cabell County). We used an iterative, modified constant comparison approach to synthesize resulting interview data. Results: Participants reported pervasive experiences with overdose, including through their own personal overdose experiences, witnessing others overdose, and losing loved ones to overdose fatalities. Experiencing emotional distress when witnessing an overdose was common among our participants. Many participants reported regularly carrying naloxone and using it to reverse overdoses. Multiple participants described believing the myth that people grow immune to naloxone over time. Concerns about the presence of fentanyl in drugs were also common, with many participants attributing their own and others' overdoses to fentanyl. Conclusions: Our findings have important implications for naloxone access and education, as well as policies and practices to encourage help seeking during overdose events among rural PWID. Participant concerns about fentanyl in the drug supply highlight the need for access to drug checking technologies.

Who Asks About HIV/STI Status?: An Analysis of Women Who Sell Sex and Inject Drugs.

Communication about HIV and sexually transmitted infections (STI) is a cornerstone of risk reduction, yet there is a dearth of research that examines communication patterns among persons with dual risks for HIV/STI acquisition, such as women who sell sex and inject drugs (WSSID). We used logistic regression to identify factors associated with WSSID (N = 211) in Baltimore, Maryland always asking new clients about their HIV/STI status. Most WSSID were non-Hispanic White (73%) and 74% reported current homelessness. 50% of WSSID reported always asking new clients about their HIV/STI status. Experiencing depressive symptoms (adjusted odds ratio [aOR]: 0.53; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.29, 0.96) and having condomless sex with clients (aOR 0.31; 95% CI: 0.17, 0.57) were inversely associated with WSSID always asking new clients about their HIV/STI status. Recent entry into sex work (aOR 2.99; 95% CI: 1.30, 6.87) was positively associated with always asking new clients about their HIV/STI status. Enhancing HIV/STI communication in combination with engagement in other risk mitigation strategies may decrease disease incidence among WSSID.

A stakeholder-driven framework for measuring potential change in the health risks of people who inject drugs (PWID) during the COVID-19 pandemic.

BACKGROUND: People who inject drugs (PWID) have likely borne disproportionate health consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic. PWID experienced both interruptions and changes to drug supply and delivery modes of harm reduction, treatment, and other medical services, leading to potentially increased risks for HIV, hepatitis C virus (HCV), and overdose. Given surveillance and research disruptions, proximal, indirect indicators of infectious diseases and overdose should be developed for timely measurement of health effects of the pandemic on PWID. METHODS: We used group concept mapping and a systems thinking approach to produce an expert stakeholder-generated, multi-level framework for monitoring changes in PWID health outcomes potentially attributable to COVID-19 in the U.S. This socio-ecological measurement framework elucidates proximal and distal contributors to infectious disease and overdose outcomes, many of which can be measured using existing data sources. RESULTS: The framework includes multi-level components including policy considerations, drug supply/distribution systems, the service delivery landscape, network factors, and individual characteristics such as mental and general health status and service utilization. These components are generally mediated by substance use and sexual behavioral factors to cause changes in incidence of HIV, HCV, sexually transmitted infections, wound/skin infections, and overdose. CONCLUSION: This measurement framework is intended to increase the quality and timeliness of research on the impacts of COVID-19 in the context of the current pandemic and future crises. Next steps include a ranking process to narrow the drivers of change in health risks to a concise set of indicators that adequately represent framework components, can be written as measurable indicators, and are quantifiable using existing data sources, as well as a publicly available web-based platform for summary data contributions.

Selling sex in the context of substance use: social and structural drivers of transactional sex among men who use opioids in Maryland.

BACKGROUND: Transactional sex is an important driver of HIV risk among people who use drugs in the USA, but there is a dearth of research characterizing men's selling and trading of sex in the context of opioid use. To identify contextually specific factors associated with selling or trading sex in a US population of men who use drugs, we cross-sectionally examined social and structural correlates of transactional sex among men who use opioids (MWUO) in Anne Arundel County and Baltimore City, Maryland. METHODS: Between July 2018 and March 2020, we used targeted sampling to recruit men reporting past-month opioid use from 22 street-level urban and suburban recruitment zones. MWUO completed a 30-min self-administered interview eliciting substance use histories, experiences with hunger and homelessness, criminal justice interactions, and transactional sex involvement. We identified correlates of recent (past 3 months) transactional sex using multivariable log-binomial regression with cluster-robust standard errors. RESULTS: Among 422 MWUO (mean age 47.3 years, 73.4% non-Hispanic Black, 94.5% heterosexual), the prevalence of recent transactional sex was 10.7%. In multivariable analysis, younger age (adjusted prevalence ratio [aPR] 0.98, 95% confidence interval [95% CI] 0.97-0.99, p < 0.001), identifying as gay/bisexual (aPR = 5.30, 95% CI 3.81-7.37, p < 0.001), past-month food insecurity (aPR = 1.77, 95% CI 1.05-3.00, p = 0.032), and injection drug use in the past 3 months (aPR = 1.75, 95% CI 1.02-3.01, p = 0.043) emerged as statistically significant independent correlates of transactional sex. CONCLUSIONS: Synergistic sources of social and structural marginalization-from sexuality to hunger, homelessness, and injection drug use-are associated with transactional sex in this predominantly Black, heterosexual-identifying sample of MWUO. Efforts to mitigate physical and psychological harms associated with transactional sex encounters should consider the racialized dimensions and socio-structural drivers of transactional sex among MWUO.

Law enforcement and syringe services program implementation in rural counties in Kentucky: a qualitative exploration.

BACKGROUND: Existing research in urban areas has documented a multitude of ways in which law enforcement may affect risks for bloodborne infectious disease acquisition among people who inject drugs (PWID), such as via syringe confiscation and engaging in practices that deter persons from accessing syringe services programs (SSPs). However, limited work has been conducted to explore how law enforcement may impact SSP implementation and operations in rural counties in the United States. This creates a significant gap in the HIV prevention literature given the volume of non-urban counties in the United States that are vulnerable to injection drug use-associated morbidity and mortality. OBJECTIVE: This study explores the influence of law enforcement during processes to acquire approvals for SSP implementation and subsequent program operations in rural Kentucky counties. METHODS: From August 2020 to October 2020, we conducted eighteen in-depth qualitative interviews among persons involved with SSP implementation in rural counties in Kentucky (USA). Interviews explored the factors that served as barriers and facilitators to SSP implementation and operations, including the role of law enforcement. RESULTS: Participants described scenarios in which rural law enforcement advocated for SSP implementation; however, they also reported police opposing rural SSP implementation and engaging in adverse behaviors (e.g., targeting SSP clients) that may jeopardize the public health of PWID. Participants reported that efforts to educate rural law enforcement about SSPs were particularly impactful when they discussed how SSP implementation may prevent needlestick injuries. CONCLUSIONS: The results of this study suggest that there are multiple ways in which rural SSP implementation and subsequent operations in rural Kentucky counties are affected by law enforcement. Future work is needed to explore how to expeditiously engage rural law enforcement, and communities more broadly, about SSPs, their benefits, and public health necessity.

Evaluating the impact of naloxone dispensation at public health vending machines in Clark County, Nevada.

INTRODUCTION: Implementing public health vending machines (PHVMs) is an evidence-based strategy for mitigating substance use-associated morbidity and mortality via the dispensation of essential supplies to people who use drugs, including overdose prevention resources. PHVMs have been implemented throughout the world; however, their implementation in the United States (US) is a recent phenomenon. In 2017, Trac-B Exchange (a syringe services program in Clark County, Nevada) installed three PHVMs. In 2019, naloxone dispensation was launched at PHVMs in Clark County. The purpose of this research is to examine the extent to which naloxone dispensation at PHVMs was associated with changes in opioid-involved overdose fatalities. METHODS: Monthly counts of opioid-involved overdose fatalities among Clark County residents that occurred from January 2015 to December 2020 were used to build an autoregressive integrated moving averages (ARIMA) model to measure the impact of naloxone dispensation at PHVMs. We forecasted the number of expected opioid-involved overdose fatalities had naloxone dispensation at PHVMs not occurred and compared to observed monthly counts. Interrupted time series analyses (ITSA) were used to evaluate the step (i.e. the immediate impact of naloxone dispensation at PHVMs on opioid-involved overdose fatalities) and slope change (i.e. changes in trend and directionality of monthly counts of opioid-involved overdose fatalities following naloxone dispensation at PHVMs). RESULTS: During the 12-months immediately following naloxone dispensation at PHVMs, our model forecasted 270 opioid-involved overdose fatalities, but death certificate data indicated only 229 occurred, suggesting an aversion of 41 deaths. ITSA identified a significant negative step change in opioid-involved overdose fatalities at the time naloxone dispensation at PHVMs was launched (B = -8.52, p = .0022) and a significant increasing slope change (B = 1.01, p<.0001). Forecasts that extended into the COVID-19 pandemic suggested worsening trends in overdose fatalities. CONCLUSION: Naloxone dispensation at PHVMs was associated with immediate reductions in opioid-involved overdose fatalities. Key MessagesNaloxone dispensation at PHVMs was associated with immediate reductions in opioid-involved overdose fatalities.Communities should consider implementing public health vending machines in efforts to prevent opioid-involved overdose fatalities.The COVID-19 pandemic worsened the overdose crisis.

Intersecting substance use treatment and harm reduction services: exploring the characteristics and service needs of a community-based sample of people who use drugs.

BACKGROUND: Substance use treatment and harm reduction services are essential components of comprehensive strategies for reducing the harms of drug use and overdose. However, these services have been historically siloed, and there is a need to better understand how programs that serve people who use drugs (PWUD) are integrating these services. In this study, we compared treatment and harm reduction services offered by a multistate sample of substance use service providers and assessed how well they align with characteristics and needs of clients they serve early in the COVID-19 pandemic. METHODS: We recruited a convenience sample of programs that deliver harm reduction and/or treatment services in ten US states. Program directors participated in a survey assessing the services offered at their program. We also recruited clients of these programs to participate in a survey assessing a range of sociodemographic and health characteristics, substance use behaviors, and health service utilization. We then cross-compared client characteristics and behaviors relative to services being offered through these programs. RESULTS: We collected and analyzed data from 511 clients attending 18 programs that we classified as either offering treatment with medications for opioid use disorder (MOUD) (N = 6), syringe service programs (SSP) (N = 8), or offering both MOUD and SSP (N = 4). All programs delivered a range of treatment and harm reduction services, with MOUD & SSP programs delivering the greatest breadth of services. There were discrepancies between services provided and characteristics and behaviors reported by clients: 80% of clients of programs that offered MOUD without SSP actively used drugs and 50% injected drugs; 40% of clients of programs that offered SSP without MOUD sought drug treatment services. Approximately half of clients were unemployed and unstably housed, but few programs offered direct social services. CONCLUSIONS: In many ways, existing programs are not meeting the service needs of PWUD. Investing in innovative models that empower clients and integrate a range of accessible and flexible treatment, harm reduction and social services can pave the way for a more effective and equitable service system that considers the long-term health of PWUD.

The changing epidemiology of opioid overdose in Baltimore, Maryland, 2012-2017: insights from emergency medical services.

INTRODUCTION: An estimated 100,306 people died from an overdose from May 2020 to April 2021. Emergency Medical Services (EMS) are often the first responder to opioid overdose, and EMS encounter records can provide granular epidemiologic data on opioid overdose. This study describes the demographic, temporal, and geographic epidemiology of suspected opioid overdose in Baltimore City using data from Baltimore City Fire Department EMS encounters with the administration of the opioid antagonist naloxone. METHOD: The present analyses used patient encounter data from 2012 to 2017 from the Baltimore City Fire Department, the city's primary provider of EMS services. The analytic sample included patient encounters within the city that involved naloxone administration to patients 15 years of age or older (n = 20,592). Negative binomial regression was used to calculate the incidence rates based on demographic characteristics, year, and census tract. Choropleth maps were used to show the geographic distribution of overdose incidence across census tracts in 2013, 2015, and 2017. RESULTS: From 2012 to 2017, the annual number of EMS encounters with naloxone administrations approximately doubled every 2 years, and the temporal pattern of naloxone administration was similar to the pattern of fatal opioid-related overdoses. For most census tracts, incidence rates significantly increased over time. Population-based incidence of naloxone administration varied significantly by socio-demographic characteristics. Males, non-whites, and those 25-69 years of age had the highest incidence rates. CONCLUSION: The incidence of naloxone administration increased dramatically over the study period. Despite significant cross-sectional variation in incidence across demographically and geographically defined groups, there were significant proportional increases in incidence rates, consistent with fatal overdose rates over the period. This study demonstrated the value of EMS data for understanding the local epidemiology of opioid-related overdose. Key MessagesPatterns of EMS encounters with naloxone administration appear to be an excellent proxy for patterns of opioid-related overdoses based on the consistency of fatal overdose rates over time.EMS plays a central role in preventing fatal opioid-related overdoses through the administration of naloxone, provision of other emergency services, and transportation to medical facilities.EMS encounters with naloxone administration could also be used to evaluate the impact of overdose prevention interventions and public health services.