[The Onco-hematology clinical research unit at the Geneva University Hospital: example of a fruitful public-private partners]. / L'Unité de recherche clinique en onco-hématologie aux HUG: un exemple réussi de partenariat public-privé.

A better understanding of the molecular deregulation leading to carcinogenesis allows the development of numerous novel targeted therapeutic candidates. Clinical research in oncology is a critical step to evaluate in a thorough manner the safety and efficacy of these innovative compounds. During the last four years the fruitful partnership between the Geneva University Hospitals and the Dr. Henri Dubois-Ferriere Dinu Lipatti Foundation lead to a dedicated clinical research unit for cancer patients with a staff of ten people. Since 2010, more than 300 patients were enrolled in more than 70 distinct clinical trials evaluating novel therapies for both solid tumors and hematologic malignancies. Interestingly, classical cytostatic drugs now represent only a small fraction of the new anti-cancer therapies in the pipeline.

The paraoxonase-1 pathway is not a major bioactivation pathway of clopidogrel in vitro.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Clopidogrel is a prodrug bioactivated by cytochrome P450s (CYPs). More recently, paraoxonase-1 (PON1) has been proposed as a major contributor to clopidogrel metabolism. The purpose of this study was to assess the relative contribution of CYPs and PON1 to clopidogrel metabolism in vitro. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH: Clopidogrel metabolism was studied in human serum, recombinant PON1 enzyme (rePON1), pooled human liver microsomes (HLMs), HLMs with the CYP2C19*1/*1 genotype and HLMs with the CYP2C19*2/*2 genotype. Inhibition studies were also performed using specific CYP inhibitors and antibodies. Clopidogrel and its metabolites were measured using LC/MS/MS method. KEY RESULTS: PON1 activity was highest in the human serum and there was no difference in PON1 activity between any of the HLM groups. The production of clopidogrel's active metabolite (clopidogrel-AM) from 2-oxo-clopidogrel in pooled HLMs was approximately 500 times that in serum. When 2-oxo-clopidogrel was incubated with rePON1, clopidogrel-AM was not detected. Clopidogrel-AM production from 2-oxo-clopidogrel was lower in CYP2C19*2/*2 HLMs compared with CYP2C19*1/*1 HLMs, while PON1 activity in HLMs with both genotypes was similar. Moreover, incubation with inhibitors of CYP3A, CYP2B6 and CYP2C19 significantly reduced clopidogrel bioactivation while a PON1 inhibitor, EDTA, had only a weak inhibitory effect. CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS: This in vitro study shows that the contribution of PON1 to clopidogrel metabolism is limited at clinically relevant concentrations. Moreover, CYP2C19, CYP2B6 and CYP3A play important roles in the bioactivation of clopidogrel.

Impact of genetic polymorphisms and drug-drug interactions on clopidogrel and prasugrel response variability.

Thienopyridine antiaggregating platelet agents (clopidogrel and prasugrel) act as irreversible P2Y12 receptor inhibitors. They are used with aspirin to prevent thrombotic complications after an acute coronary syndrome or percutaneous coronary intervention. A large interindividual variability in response to clopidogrel and to a lesser extent to prasugrel is observed and may be related to their metabolism. Clopidogrel and prasugrel are indeed prodrugs converted into their respective active metabolites by several cytochromes P450 (CYPs). Besides clopidogrel inactivation (85%) by esterases to the carboxylic acid, clopidogrel is metabolized by CYPs to 2-oxo-clopidogrel (15%) and further metabolized to an unstable but potent platelet-aggregating inhibitor. Prasugrel is more potent than clopidogrel with a better bioavailability and lower pharmacodynamic variability. Prasugrel is completely converted by esterases to an intermediate oxo-metabolite (R-95913) further bioactivated by CYPs. Numerous clinical studies have shown the influence of CYP2C19 polymorphism on clopidogrel antiplatelet activity. Moreover, unwanted drug-drug pharmacokinetic interactions influencing CYP2C19 activity and clopidogrel bioactivation such as with proton pump inhibitors remain a matter of intense controversy. Several studies have also demonstrated that CYP3A4/5 and CYP1A2 are important in clopidogrel bioactivation and should also be considered as potential targets for unwanted drug-drug interactions. Prasugrel bioactivation is mainly related to CYP3A4 and 2B6 activity and therefore the question of the effect of drug-drug interaction on its activity is open. The purpose of this review is to critically examine the current literature evaluating the influence of genetic and environmental factors such as unwanted drug-drug interaction affecting clopidogrel and prasugrel antiplatelet activity.