Neighborhood socioeconomic position, living arrangements, and cardiometabolic disease among older Puerto Ricans: An examination using PREHCO 2002-2007.

Cardiometabolic diseases are among the leading causes of mortality worldwide and are increasingly prevalent in rapidly aging populations. Neighborhood socioeconomic position (SEP) and living arrangements are increasingly recognized as important determinants of cardiometabolic health but have not been examined within Puerto Rico. This study examined the association between neighborhood SEP, living arrangements, and incidence of cardiometabolic conditions among island-dwelling older Puerto Ricans, using longitudinal data from the Puerto Rican Elderly Health Conditions Project (Waves I 2002/03 and II 2006/07) linked with 2000 Census data for neighborhood-level conditions. Our sample consists of non-institutionalized adults aged 60 and older who remained in the same residence over both waves of data collection (N = 2,769). We used multilevel multinomial logistic regression models to examine the relationship between neighborhood SEP and the prevalence and incidence of cardiometabolic disease. Findings show that residence in a socioeconomically advantaged neighborhood was positively associated with reporting having one cardiometabolic condition at baseline, but not associated with the incidence of cardiometabolic conditions at follow-up. Living without a partner was negatively associated with reporting having cardiometabolic conditions compared to living with a partner. Similar results were found for the incidence of cardiometabolic conditions. Living arrangements significantly modified the relationship between neighborhood SEP and cardiometabolic conditions. Compared to living with a partner, living alone in a socioeconomically advantaged neighborhood was associated with a reduced risk of reporting having one condition. Living with children in a socioeconomically advantaged neighborhood was associated with a reduced risk of developing one cardiometabolic condition than living with a partner. Living arrangements are more salient to cardiometabolic health than neighborhood SEP. Social programs and services focused on household composition and familial support are needed to identify older Puerto Ricans potentially at risk of underdiagnosed chronic conditions, especially as ongoing economic, demographic, environmental, and healthcare crises potentially exacerbate social inequalities.

Living Arrangements and Intergenerational Support in Puerto Rico: Are Fathers Disadvantaged?

OBJECTIVES: To examine how intergenerational support varies by parents' living arrangements and whether there are gender differences in received support in Puerto Rico. METHODS: Data come from the 2006-2007 Puerto Rican Elderly and Health Conditions Project, a representative longitudinal study of adults aged 60 and older in Puerto Rico (n = 2,288). We examined the association between parents' living arrangements (alone, with spouse/partner only, with children) and their receipt of functional (help with errands/housework/transport) and health (help when sick) support from children, and whether parents' gender moderates the association. RESULTS: Intergenerational coresidence was associated with higher odds of receiving functional and health support than living alone. Women were more likely than men to receive both forms of support. Parents' gender significantly moderated the association between living arrangements and receiving health support-men living with their partners were less likely to receive health support from children than women in similar living arrangements. These associations persisted when analyses were restricted to those with disability. DISCUSSION: Our findings suggest that parents' receipt of support from children is conditioned upon their living arrangement and gender, even when their functional health is jeopardized. We discuss these results in relation to the heterogeneous influence of living arrangements for older adults' support needs and provide suggestions for policy and directions for future research in rapidly aging Puerto Rico.

Primary care and multimorbidity in six Latin American and Caribbean countries

[ABSTRACT]. Objectives. To describe patterns of multimorbidity in six diverse Latin American and Caribbean countries, examine its effects on primary care experiences, and assess its influence on reported overall health care assessments. Methods. Cross-sectional data are from the Inter-American Development Bank’s international primary care survey, conducted in 2013/2014, and represent the adult populations of Brazil, Colombia, El Salvador, Jamaica, Mexico and Panama. Robust Poisson regression models were used to estimate the extent to which those with multimorbidity receive adequate and appropriate primary care, have confidence in managing their health condition, and are able to afford needed medical care. Results. The prevalence of multimorbidity ranged from 17.5% in Colombia to 37.3% in Jamaica. Most of the examined conditions occur along with others, with diabetes and heart disease being the two problems most associated with other conditions. The proportions of adults with high out-of-pocket payments, problems paying their medical bills, seeing multiple doctors, and being in only fair/poor health were higher among those with greater levels of multimorbidity and poorer primary care experiences. Multimorbidity and difficulties with primary care were positively associated with trouble paying for medical care and managing one’s conditions. Nonetheless, adults with multimorbidity were more likely to have received lifestyle advice and to be up to date with preventive exams. Conclusions. Multimorbidity is reported frequently. Providing adequate care for the growing number of such patients is a major challenge facing most health systems, which will require considerable strengthening of primary care along with financial protection for those most in need.

[RESUMEN]. Objetivos. Describir los modelos de multimorbilidad en seis países distintos de América Latina y el Caribe, examinar sus efectos en las experiencias de atención primaria y evaluar su influencia con base en informes sobre evaluaciones generales de atención de salud. Métodos. Los datos transversales son de la encuesta internacional de atención primaria del Banco Interamericano de Desarrollo, realizada en el 2013-2014, y representan la población adulta de Brasil, Colombia, El Salvador, Jamaica, México y Panamá. Se utilizaron modelos robustos de regresión de Poisson en personas con multimorbilidad para estimar hasta qué punto reciben la atención primaria suficiente y apropiada, tienen confianza en que pueden controlar su estado de salud, y pueden costear la atención médica necesaria. Resultados. Se observó que la prevalencia de la multimorbilidad abarcaba desde 17,5% en Colombia hasta 37,3% en Jamaica. La mayoría de las afecciones examinadas se presentan acompañadas de otras, siendo la diabetes y las cardiopatías los dos problemas más asociados con otras afecciones. La proporción de adultos que afrontan pagos directos altos, problemas para pagar sus cuentas médicas, consultas con múltiples médicos y un estado de salud entre aceptable y desmejorado fue mayor en aquellos con niveles de multimorbilidad más altos y experiencias de atención primaria más deficientes. La multimorbilidad y las dificultades concernientes a la atención primaria presentaron una asociación positiva con la dificultad para costear la atención médica y controlar su estado de salud. No obstante, los adultos con multimorbilidad tenían mayores probabilidades de haber recibido asesoramiento sobre su estilo de vida y de estar al día con sus exámenes preventivos. Conclusiones. La multimorbilidad se notifica con frecuencia. Ofrecer un cuidado adecuado para el número cada vez mayor de pacientes con esas características es un reto importante al que se enfrenta la mayoría de los sistemas de salud, que necesitarán un fortalecimiento considerable de la atención primaria y de la protección financiera para atender a aquellos más necesitados.

[RESUMO]. Objetivos. Descrever os padrões de multimorbidade em seis países da América Latina e Caribe, examinar os efeitos da multimorbidade na prática de atenção primária e avaliar a influência nas avaliações relatadas pelos pacientes atendidos. Métodos. Estudo baseado em dados transversais obtidos de uma pesquisa internacional de atenção primária realizada pelo Banco Interamericano de Desenvolvimento (BID) em 2013–2014, representativos da população adulta do Brasil, Colômbia, El Salvador, Jamaica, México e Panamá. Modelos robustos de regressão de Poisson foram usados para estimar em que medida a atenção primária prestada aos pacientes com multimorbidade é adequada e oportuna, eles se sentem seguros em controlar a própria doença e podem pagar pela atenção médica necessária. Resultados. A prevalência de multimorbidade variou entre 17,5% na Colômbia e 37,3% na Jamaica. A maioria das doenças avaliadas ocorre junto com outros problemas, sendo a diabetes e a doença cardíaca mais comumente associadas a outras doenças. Os percentuais de adultos que relataram grandes desembolsos por conta própria, dificuldade para pagar as contas médicas, consultas a vários médicos distintos e estado de saúde regular/ruim foram maiores nos pacientes com maior número de doenças e experiências de atendimento piores na atenção primária. A multimorbidade e problemas com a atenção primária tiveram uma associação positiva com a dificuldade de pagar pela atenção médica e controlar a própria doença. Porém, verificou-se uma probabilidade maior de os adultos com multimorbidade receberem orientações sobre estilo de vida e manter em dia os exames preventivos. Conclusões. A multimorbidade é frequente. Proporcionar atenção adequada ao número crescente de pacientes portadores de diversas doenças é um grande desafio enfrentado pela maioria dos sistemas de saúde e requer um reforço substancial da atenção primária e proteção financeira para os mais carentes.

Primary care and multimorbidity in six Latin American and Caribbean countries / Atención primaria y multimorbilidad en seis países de América Latina y el Caribe / Atenção primária e multimorbidade em seis países da América Latina e Caribe

ABSTRACT Objectives To describe patterns of multimorbidity in six diverse Latin American and Caribbean countries, examine its effects on primary care experiences, and assess its influence on reported overall health care assessments. Methods Cross-sectional data are from the Inter-American Development Bank's international primary care survey, conducted in 2013/2014, and represent the adult populations of Brazil, Colombia, El Salvador, Jamaica, Mexico and Panama. Robust Poisson regression models were used to estimate the extent to which those with multimorbidity receive adequate and appropriate primary care, have confidence in managing their health condition, and are able to afford needed medical care. Results The prevalence of multimorbidity ranged from 17.5% in Colombia to 37.3% in Jamaica. Most of the examined conditions occur along with others, with diabetes and heart disease being the two problems most associated with other conditions. The proportions of adults with high out-of-pocket payments, problems paying their medical bills, seeing multiple doctors, and being in only fair/poor health were higher among those with greater levels of multimorbidity and poorer primary care experiences. Multimorbidity and difficulties with primary care were positively associated with trouble paying for medical care and managing one's conditions. Nonetheless, adults with multimorbidity were more likely to have received lifestyle advice and to be up to date with preventive exams. Conclusions Multimorbidity is reported frequently. Providing adequate care for the growing number of such patients is a major challenge facing most health systems, which will require considerable strengthening of primary care along with financial protection for those most in need.

RESUMEN Objetivos Describir los modelos de multimorbilidad en seis países distintos de América Latina y el Caribe, examinar sus efectos en las experiencias de atención primaria y evaluar su influencia con base en informes sobre evaluaciones generales de atención de salud. Métodos Los datos transversales son de la encuesta internacional de atención primaria del Banco Interamericano de Desarrollo, realizada en el 2013-2014, y representan la población adulta de Brasil, Colombia, El Salvador, Jamaica, México y Panamá. Se utilizaron modelos robustos de regresión de Poisson en personas con multimorbilidad para estimar hasta qué punto reciben la atención primaria suficiente y apropiada, tienen confianza en que pueden controlar su estado de salud, y pueden costear la atención médica necesaria. Resultados Se observó que la prevalencia de la multimorbilidad abarcaba desde 17,5% en Colombia hasta 37,3% en Jamaica. La mayoría de las afecciones examinadas se presentan acompañadas de otras, siendo la diabetes y las cardiopatías los dos problemas más asociados con otras afecciones. La proporción de adultos que afrontan pagos directos altos, problemas para pagar sus cuentas médicas, consultas con múltiples médicos y un estado de salud entre aceptable y desmejorado fue mayor en aquellos con niveles de multimorbilidad más altos y experiencias de atención primaria más deficientes. La multimorbilidad y las dificultades concernientes a la atención primaria presentaron una asociación positiva con la dificultad para costear la atención médica y controlar su estado de salud. No obstante, los adultos con multimorbilidad tenían mayores probabilidades de haber recibido asesoramiento sobre su estilo de vida y de estar al día con sus exámenes preventivos. Conclusiones La multimorbilidad se notifica con frecuencia. Ofrecer un cuidado adecuado para el número cada vez mayor de pacientes con esas características es un reto importante al que se enfrenta la mayoría de los sistemas de salud, que necesitarán un fortalecimiento considerable de la atención primaria y de la protección financiera para atender a aquellos más necesitados.

RESUMO Objetivos Descrever os padrões de multimorbidade em seis países da América Latina e Caribe, examinar os efeitos da multimorbidade na prática de atenção primária e avaliar a influência nas avaliações relatadas pelos pacientes atendidos. Métodos Estudo baseado em dados transversais obtidos de uma pesquisa internacional de atenção primária realizada pelo Banco Interamericano de Desenvolvimento (BID) em 2013-2014, representativos da população adulta do Brasil, Colômbia, El Salvador, Jamaica, México e Panamá. Modelos robustos de regressão de Poisson foram usados para estimar em que medida a atenção primária prestada aos pacientes com multimorbidade é adequada e oportuna, eles se sentem seguros em controlar a própria doença e podem pagar pela atenção médica necessária. Resultados A prevalência de multimorbidade variou entre 17,5% na Colômbia e 37,3% na Jamaica. A maioria das doenças avaliadas ocorre junto com outros problemas, sendo a diabetes e a doença cardíaca mais comumente associadas a outras doenças. Os percentuais de adultos que relataram grandes desembolsos por conta própria, dificuldade para pagar as contas médicas, consultas a vários médicos distintos e estado de saúde regular/ruim foram maiores nos pacientes com maior número de doenças e experiências de atendimento piores na atenção primária. A multimorbidade e problemas com a atenção primária tiveram uma associação positiva com a dificuldade de pagar pela atenção médica e controlar a própria doença. Porém, verificou-se uma probabilidade maior de os adultos com multimorbidade receberem orientações sobre estilo de vida e manter em dia os exames preventivos. Conclusões A multimorbidade é frequente. Proporcionar atenção adequada ao número crescente de pacientes portadores de diversas doenças é um grande desafio enfrentado pela maioria dos sistemas de saúde e requer um reforço substancial da atenção primária e proteção financeira para os mais carentes.

Educational Differences in Health Among Middle-Aged and Older Adults in Brazil and Mexico.

OBJECTIVE: This study examines educational differences in health conditions among middle-aged and older adults in Brazil and Mexico. METHOD: Cross-sectional data from the 2013 Brazilian National Health Survey and the 2012 Mexican National Health and Nutrition Survey were used in the analyses. We used multivariate Poisson regressions to examine the relationship between educational level and prevalence of common health conditions (obesity, abdominal obesity, diabetes, hypertension, heart disease, and hearing and visual impairments). RESULTS: Socioeconomic and sex inequalities persist in both countries. In general, low levels of education were associated with higher risk for having health conditions. However, men of lower education had a smaller risk of abdominal obesity and hypertension. DISCUSSION: Brazil and Mexico have expanded public health actions aimed at improving health behaviors, diagnosis, and access to treatment of chronic conditions. However, important social disparities remain. Improving lifestyle behaviors, such as physical activity and dietary habits, could benefit both countries.

Time trends in adult chronic disease inequalities by education in Brazil: 1998-2013.

BACKGROUND: Socioeconomic differences in health in Brazil are largely driven by differences in educational attainment. In this paper, we assess whether educational gradients in chronic disease prevalence have narrowed in Brazil from 1998 to 2013, a period of a booming economy accompanied by major investments in public health in the country. METHODS: Individual-level data came from the 1998, 2003 and 2008 Brazilian National Household Survey and the 2013 National Health Survey. We first evaluate age-standardized prevalence rates of chronic disease by education and second, we predict the estimated prevalence rate between those in low vs. high education to assess if relative changes in chronic disease have narrowed over time. Third, we estimate the slope index of inequality (SII) that evaluates the absolute change in the predicted prevalence of a disease between those in low vs. high education. Finally, we tested for statistically significant time trends in adult chronic disease inequalities by education. RESULTS: Prevalence of diabetes and hypertension have increased over the period, whereas the prevalence of heart disease decreased. Brazilian adults with no education had higher levels of diabetes, hypertension and heart disease than those with some college or more. Adjusted prevalence for hypertension and heart disease indicate some progress in reducing educational disparities over time. However, for diabetes, adjusted results show a continuously increasing educational disparity from 1998 to 2013. By 2013, individuals with no education had about two times higher diabetes prevalence than those with higher education with larger disparity among women. CONCLUSIONS: Results confirm findings from previous work that educational inequalities in health are large in Brazil but also provide evidence suggesting some improvement in narrowing these differentials in recent times. Recent policies aiming at reducing the prevalence of obesity, smoking and alcohol consumption, and increasing physical activity and consumption of fruits and vegetables may increase the overall health and wellbeing of the Brazilian population. These programs are likely to be more effective if they target those with low socioeconomic status, as they appeared to be at a higher risk of developing chronic conditions, and promote educational opportunities.

Employment status and health outcomes among Brazilian adults.

BACKGROUND: Employment is a key determinant of health disparity. We examined gender-specific relationships between employment status and health outcomes among Brazilian adults. METHODS: Nationally representative data (n=463 223) came from the 2003 and 2008 Brazilian National Household Surveys. Logistic regressions were performed to estimate gender-specific associations between employment status and health outcomes. RESULTS: Compared with employed counterparts, the odds of depression were higher among unemployed men (AOR 2.04; 95% CI 1.80-2.32) and women (AOR 1.60; 95% CI 1.49-1.72). Economically inactive men were more likely to report depression than their employed counterparts (AOR 3.33; 95% CI 3.08-3.59), whereas the effect was smaller for economically inactive women (AOR 2.24; 95% CI 1.19-1.29). Compared with their employed counterparts, the odds of functional limitation were higher among economically inactive men (AOR 6.61; 95% CI 5.90-7.41) and women (AOR 1.95; 95% CI 1.83-2.08). The odds of very poor or poor self-rated health were higher among economically inactive men (AOR 4.58; 95% CI 4.28-4.90) and women (AOR 1.53; 95% CI 1.44-1.62) than among employed counterparts. Unemployed men were more likely to report poor health compared with those employed (AOR 1.26; 95% CI 1.09-1.46); whereas no difference in very poor or poor self-rated health was found between employed and unemployed women. CONCLUSIONS: Employment was associated with better health outcomes among Brazilian adults. Policies should also facilitate access to preventive services and adequate treatment to those inactive or unemployed.

Heterosexual transmission of HIV in the Dominican Republic: gendered indicators are associated with disparities in condom use.

BACKGROUND: Gendered dynamics in heterosexual relationships compromise women's self-efficacy and increase their vulnerability to acquiring HIV. This study examines the impact of socioeconomic determinants, media exposure, and sexual expectations on sexual behaviors of men and women in the Dominican Republic (DR). METHODS: We analyzed cross-sectional data from 51,018 adults in the Dominican Republic age 15 to 45 years collected by the Demographics and Health Survey (DHS) in 2007. Measures included demographic and socioeconomic indicators, social exposures, sexual expectations and sexual behaviors. Logistic regression models explored gender differences in condom use. RESULTS: Study findings indicated that women were less likely to use a condom at last intercourse than men (odds ratio [OR] = 0.29; 95 % CI = 0.27, 0.31). Among men, secondary (OR = 1.43; 95 % CI = 1.16, 1.76) and higher education (OR = 1.58; 95 % CI = 1.25, 2.00), being in the richest quintile (OR = 1.25; 95 % CI = 1.07, 1.47), and living in a female-headed household (OR = 1.13; 95 % CI 1.03, 1.23) increased the likelihood of condom use. Compared to never married men, currently and formerly married men were less likely to use condoms (OR = 0.03; 95 % CI = 0.03, 0.04 and OR = 0.67; 95 % CI = 0.60, 0.75, respectively). The odds of condom use increased for young women 15-19 years old in comparison with women age 30-34 years, but decreased as they grew older. For women, being in the richer quintile (OR = 1.28; 95 % CI = 1.06, 1.54), living in a female-headed household (OR = 1.26; 1.12, 1.41), and having good access to media (OR = 1.24; 95 % CI = 1.12, 1.42) increased the likelihood of condom use. Being currently married or formerly married and living in rural areas decreased such likelihood among women. CONCLUSIONS: Study findings provide evidence that, in the DHS, socioeconomic and cultural differences between men and women affects condom use. Efforts to reduce HIV transmission within heterosexual relationships in the DR call for tailored, gender-specific interventions that take into account gender differences of power and sexual behaviors.

Family and individual predictors of physical activity for older Mexican adolescents.

PURPOSE: Low levels of physical activity (PA) are associated with persistent obesity. Adolescent obesity is linked to adult morbidity and premature mortality. This study examined a model of perceived parental influence in Mexican older adolescents to uncover contemporaneous family and personal predictors of Mexican older adolescents' PA. METHOD: Participants 16- to 25-years-old (n = 3,908), Mexican college applicants, underwent a health screen and filled out questionnaires which included information on PA and potential correlates. A logistic regression model was used to ascertain family factors (socioeconomic status, conflict about PA, and perceived parental PA) and individual factors (age, sex, body mass index, depressive symptoms, enjoyment of PA, and sedentary behaviors) associated with adolescents' PA. RESULTS: Most participants reported being physically active (61.5%); less than half reported physically active parents (40.0%). Perceived parental PA (odds ratio [OR] = 8.67, p ≤ .0001), enjoyment of PA (OR = 2.11, p ≤ .0001), and conflicts about PA (OR = 1.16, p ≤ .0001) were important positive predictors of adolescents' PA. CONCLUSION: PA among Mexican older adolescents is influenced by parental PA. The role of conflicts about PA is likely to be influenced by culture and may indicate that older adolescents' PA is not completely accepted by parents.

Measuring the impact of diabetes on life expectancy and disability-free life expectancy among older adults in Mexico.

UNLABELLED: OBJECTIVES. The aim of the present study is to investigate differences in total life expectancy (TLE), disability-free life expectancy (DFLE), disabled life expectancy (DLE), and personal care assistance between individuals with and without diabetes in Mexico. METHODS: The sample was drawn from the nationally representative Mexican Health and Aging Study. Disability was assessed through a basic Activities of Daily Living (ADL) measure, the Instrumental Activities of Daily Living (IADL) scale, and the Nagi physical performance measure. The Interpolation of Markov Chains method was used to estimate the impact of diabetes on TLE and DFLE. RESULTS: Results indicate that diabetes reduces TLE at ages 50 and 80 by about 10 and 4 years, respectively. Diabetes is also associated with fewer years in good health. DFLE (based on ADL measures) at age 50 is 20.8 years (95% confidence interval [CI]: 19.2-22.3) for those with diabetes, compared with 29.9 years (95% CI: 28.8-30.9) for those without diabetes. Regardless of diabetes status, Mexican women live longer but face a higher disability burden than men. CONCLUSION: Among older adults in Mexico, diabetes is associated with shorter TLE and DFLE. The negative effect of diabetes on the number of years lived, particularly in good health, creates significant economic, social, and individual costs for elderly Mexicans.