Risk factors for carriage of Streptococcus pneumoniae in children.

BACKGROUND: During the past decades Streptococcus pneumoniae has developed significant resistance to many classes of antimicrobial drugs. Potential risk factors for colonization of the nasopharynx by Streptococcus pneumoniae in children and for carriage of drug resistant strains were examined. METHODS: Between 2007 and 2008 nasopharyngeal swabs were collected from 402 children 6 months to 5 years old visiting the public sector immunization centers and outpatient departments as well as offices of paediatricians from private practice in Nicosia district in Cyprus. Information on demographic characteristics and potential risk factors of participating children were collected using a standardized questionnaire distributed to parents. RESULTS: In multivariable analyses we found that attendance at day care center, having siblings in the family and having both parents originating from Cyprus, statistically increased the risk of pneumococcal colonization. Full immunization with PCV7 appears to be a protective factor against colonization by pneumococcus. Previous administration of antimicrobials during the last month prior to specimen collection appeared to be the most consistent risk factor for carrying a non susceptible strain of Streptococcus pneumoniae to either penicillin or erythromycin. Factors such as age, nationality, previous or current breastfeeding, passive exposure to cigarette smoke and attendance in a day care center do not appear as independent risk factors for colonization by non susceptible strains. CONCLUSIONS: Prudent use of antibiotics especially for upper respiratory tract infections in children as well as increased vaccination coverage by the pneumococcal conjugate vaccines could prove effective in reducing levels of colonization by drug resistant pneumococcal strains.

The epidemiology of childhood poisonings in Cyprus.

Information on childhood poisonings in Cyprus is limited. Our objective was to examine the epidemiology of poisonings among children in Cyprus. All children up to 15 years of age admitted for poisoning to the Archbishop Makarios Hospital in Nicosia, Cyprus between 2005 and 2008 were included in our study. All hospital poisoning records were reviewed. A total of 257 children were admitted for poisoning. The mean age of children was 3.1 years, of which 83.7% were below the age of 5 years old, while 53% were boys. The poisoning hospitalizations accounted for about 3% of all admissions to the pediatric department during the study period (4 years). The annual cumulative incidence of childhood poisoning hospitalizations was 116 per 100,000 children. Medications accounted for 46.1% of all poisonings, the most frequent cause being paracetamol (9.8%), cardiovascular medications (5.3%), antitussive medications (4.5%), and other painkillers (4.1%). Another 37.6% of hospitalizations involved household products such as household cleaning products (11.8%), petroleum products (11.0%), and rodenticides (5.7%). Among children who ingested petroleum distillates, 55.6% developed clinical symptomatology. The vast majority of cases were accidental (93.8%). Suicidal cases involved children 8-14 years old, mainly girls, and the most frequent poisoning ingested was paracetamol (46.7%). Poisoning hospitalizations represent an important cause of morbidity among children in Cyprus. Preventive strategies should include the education of caregivers on the handling of medications and household products as well as legislation requiring child-resistant packaging for all medications and household products including petroleum distillates.