Alexander the Great (356-323 BC) and His Injury in Kyropolis Reconsidered.

Purpose: To reconsider Alexander the Great's injury in Kyropolis. Methods: Historical sources were compared with modern neurosurgery. Results: Earlier interpretations were focused on the transient blindness Alexander the Great presented after the injury, but according to our point of view we should rather focus on his dysarthria which lasted almost two months. Conclusion: We propose the hypothesis that Alexander the Great developed a posttraumatic delayed cerebellar syndrome after the injury.

The ancient Greek roots of the term Toxic.

In ancient Greek literature the adjective toxic (Greek: τoξικόν) derives from the noun τόξo, that is the arc. This noun according to the Liddell - Scott - Jones lexicon had several meanings. Apart from the meaning that someone is able to use a bow or the military department of the archers, the medical context of the term is that a substance has the characteristic of a poison. This concept of the term survived until today with little differentiation.

John Watson (1807-1863) and his Pioneer Work On the Surgery of Esophagus.

Backround. John Watson (1807-1863) was the first surgeon in USA who performed and published his results on esophagotomy. Methods. His pioneer surgical work was a gold standard reference for the later surgeons. Results. Watson was a devoted surgeon and his innovative operating techniques secured him a place in the hall of fame of the history of medicine.

Louis-Joseph-Marie Robert (1771-1850) and his method for the prevention of breast cancer.

In 19th century breast cancer was still an incurable disease. The treatment was consisting of surgical excision of the tumour, cautery iron and topical application of caustic substances such as arsenic and caustic potash without promising results. The French physician Louis Robert (1771-1850) adopted the leech method of François-Joseph-Victor Broussais (1772-1838) and proposed, for the first time, a method to prevent breast cancer. Despite the supposed success of his approach, the introduction of the notion of prevention and the ways to achieve it, it is meticulously analyzed in his work.

Paul of Aegina (ca 625-690 ad): Byzantine Surgeon and Pioneer of Surgical Management of Congenital Atresia of the External Auditory Canal.

Diseases of the ear have been recorded and treated since ancient times. Ex-votos have been offered to heal deafness. Noninvasive treatments have evolved into minor, and later more advanced, surgical techniques to treat head and neck issues. Paul of Aegina (ca 625-690 ad) perfected his medical skills in the School of Alexandria in Egypt. His medical encyclopedia, Medical Compendium, described a broad series of surgical operations, including a chapter "On the atresia of the auditory canal," which vividly described a surgical technique to open the ear canal. This surgery is particularly interesting, as it exceeds the limits of resection and amputation known at that time and describes a novel surgical technique. His innovative methods paved the way for future surgeons.

Professor William Macewen (1848-1924): The Scottish Pioneer of Surgery.

Professor William Macewen (1848-1924) is one of the most important figures in world's surgery during 18th and early 19th century. He managed to provide numerous innovative techniques and instruments in various fields of surgery such as general surgery, orthopedic surgery, neurosurgery, and thoracic surgery. His innovations had a great impact after his time and constituted the fundaments for further surgical developments. He also was a pioneer in clinical photography with the creation of a huge archive. During his surgical career, he received many honors.

Mathieu Jaboulay (1860-1913) and His Innovations in Vascular and General Surgery.

Mathieu Jaboulay (1860-1913) was an inventor in vascular and general surgery. He fabricated many new surgical techniques and instruments such as Jaboulay method for vascular sutures, Jaboulay anastomotic button, and Jaboulay amputation, known also as hemipelvectomy. In addition, he was a pioneer in heterologous transplantation and sympathectomy. He found death suddenly in a terrible train crash. He was a reputable Professor of Surgery at Lyon Faculty of Medicine with prestigious students in vascular surgery.

Rhazes' (864-925) views on cancer and the introduction of chemotherapy.

Abu Bakr Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi, known also by his Latinized name Rhazes, stands among the Arabo-islamic physicians as the most important medical figure of his time. His contribution to medicine is considered vital as through his work and translations, the ancient Greek medicine along with the Arabian innovations, were spread in the Western medical literature. In his masterpiece entitled: "The comprehensive book on medicine", known also as "The large comprehensive or Continens Liber", he had thoroughly studied cancer, discussing its diagnosis and treatment. He was among the pioneers to introduce the notion of chemotherapy by combining alchemical, chemical, medical and pharmaceutical knowledge.

Fedor Krause (1857-1937) and His Innovations in Neurosurgery.

Although Ernst von Bergmann (1837-1907) is considered the father of neurosurgery in Germany, Fedor Krause (1857-1937) should be considered as its main founder. He was principally a general surgeon but he had a special interest in neurosurgery, a field in which he introduced many new techniques. He also fabricated innovative surgical methods for the treatment of patients with epilepsy.

Oncologic conceptions in the work of the surgeon Guy de Chauliac (c. 1300-1368).

Guy de Chauliac, the most famous surgeon of the middle age, influenced the practice of surgery for centuries. His landmark work, in seven treatises, "Chirurgia Magna" was translated from Latin to French and became popular across Europe, educating hundreds of surgeons. In his book, a series of text fragments were dedicated in cancer such as breast tumor removal, amputation for soft tissue carcinomas of the extremities and cancer treatment using arsenic. Chauliac was probably the first physician to suggest the excision of cancer at early stage and this is considered as a promoter of surgical oncology.

The distinguished Austrian ophthalmologist Ernst Fuchs (1851-1930) and the "sarcom des uvealtractus".

Born in Vienna, in mid 19th century, Ernst Fuchs became an innovative ophthalmologist and is currently considered as the father of modern ophthalmology. Conditions like heterochromic uveitis and endothelial dystrophy were discovered by Fuchs and a series of ocular diseases are named after him. His work dealing with eye pathology, entitled: "Textbook of Ophthalmology", became known as the masterpiece of the 19th century ophthalmology. In ocular oncology, Fuchs introduced first the "sarcom des uvealtractus" (uveal sarcoma), known today as uveal melanoma. His treatment approach by enucleation was in vogue for more than 100 years, while his theory for hepatic metastasis of ocular cancer remains valid.

Heart cancer in the writings of the anatomo-clinical School members.

In the 19th century medicine flourished in Paris thanks to the advent of the anatomo-clinical School which introduced new methods of clinical examination and diagnosis. Pathology, auscultation and percussion became a routine in medical practice and paved the way for the rising of specialties such as cardiology and oncology. Heart cancer cases were meticulously described by several physicians and by the end of the century heart carcinoma was a well studied and known entity.

The distinguished Greek born, French ophthalmologist Photinos Panas (1832-1903) and his views on ocular cancer.

Photinos Panas (1832-1903) was one of the world's most important ophthalmologists in the second half of the 19th century. In his leading work entitled, Traité des maladies des yeux (Treatise of ophthalmic diseases), he made an in depth analysis of the various types of ocular cancer. His ideas on the subject were important for their tutorial character, their connection to the clinical work and very helpful for the everyday clinical practice of physicians of that time.

The eminent gynaecologist Richard Wesley TeLinde (1894- 1989) and his contribution to diagnosis of cervical cancer.

At the beginning of the 20th century, the relation of carcinoma in situ of the cervix to the invasive cancer was poorly understood, resulting in misdiagnosis of the disease and inappropriate treatment. The work of Richard Wesley TeLinde, chairman of Gynaecology at Johns Hopkins University for almost 21 years, contributed to delineate the diagnosis of cervical carcinoma, providing suggestive evidence that carcinoma in situ often precedes invasive cervical cancer.

Cervical cancer in the work of the unconventional Samuel Pozzi (1846-1918), pioneer of modern gynaecology.

Advocate of Lister's antiseptic techniques, promoter of anesthesia, professor of the first chair of gynaecology in Medical School of Paris, academician, successful politician, art collector, friend and lover of the famous, Samuel Pozzi lived a fascinating life. His book "Treatise of clinical and surgical gynaecology" published in 1890 became the gold standard in medical practice while his approach in the treatment of cervical cancer, including cases of pregnant women, remained in vogue for almost fifty years.

Isolating Colchicine in 19th Century: An Old Drug Revisited.

Colchicine is a tricyclic alkaloid extracted from the herbaceous plant Colchicum autumnale. Known since antiquity for its therapeutic efficacy in the treatment of gout, colchicine was reintroduced in 19th century pharmacopeia, thanks to the work of the French chemists and pharmacists Pierre-Joseph Pelletier (1788-1842) and Joseph Bienaimé Caventou (1795-1877) who in 1819, isolated a peculiar substance in the roots of Colchicum autumnale. In 1833, the substance was further analyzed by the German pharmacist and chemist Philipp Lorenz Geiger (1785-1836), who coined the name colchicine. In 1884, the French pharmacist Alfred Houde (1854-1919) produced for the first time pure crystallized colchicine in granules of 1milligram which is still sold under this trade name in several countries. In the last two centuries, colchicine's indications were furthermore expanded. From anti-gout drug during antiquity and a diuretic in 19th century, colchicine is currently administered in several affections such as Adamantiades-Behcet's disease, familial Mediterranean fever, pericarditis and atrial fibrillation.

Le "canceur des fumeurs" in 19th century: the contribution of the French surgeon Étienne-Frédéric Bouisson (1813-1884).

At the beginning of the 19th century, the alarming rise in tobacco consumption and its consequences in health preoccupied physicians. Several medical authors pointed out the harmful effects of smoking, enumerating related disorders. In 1821, the hygienist Alexandre Parent du Châtelet (1790-1835) and the chemist Félix d'Arcet (1814-1847), studied the effects of tobacco in health and concluded that it was a relatively healthy habit providing also a kind of immunity from contagious diseases. The tobacco controversy opened up and continued for almost 40 years. In 1861, the professor of surgery and politician Étienne-Frédéric Bouisson (1813-1884) in his work entitled: "Tribut à la chirurgie ou mémoires sur divers sujets de cette science" (Tribute to surgery or dissertations on various topics of this science) related for the first time tobacco consumption to oral cancer, applying medical statistics and analyzing meticulously all the available data.

Preventing syphilis in the 16th century: the distinguished Italian anatomist Gabriele Falloppio (1523-1562) and the invention of the condom.

By the end of the 15th century, syphilis had reached epidemic proportions in Europe. Unable to ascertain its causes, physicians resorted to superstition. At the beginning of the 16th century, the sexual transmission of the disease was established. Initially, the principal measure of infection control was sexual abstinence and mutual fidelity. However, during the same period the Italian anatomist Gabriele Falloppio (1523-1562) proposed a method of preventing syphilis transmission: the medication-soaked linen sheath. Thus was born the idea of a mechanical barrier against sexually transmitted diseases: the condom.