Autophagy-related proteins are functionally active in human spermatozoa and may be involved in the regulation of cell survival and motility.

Macroautophagy (hereafter autophagy) is an evolutionarily highly conserved cellular process that participates in the maintenance of intracellular homeostasis through the degradation of most long-lived proteins and entire organelles. Autophagy participates in some reproductive events; however, there are not reports regarding the role of autophagy in the regulation of sperm physiology. Hence, the aim of this study was to investigate whether autophagy-related proteins are present and functionally active in human spermatozoa. Proteins related to autophagy/mitophagy process (LC3, Atg5, Atg16, Beclin 1, p62, m-TOR, AMPKα 1/2, and PINK1) were present in human spermatozoa. LC3 colocalized with p62 in the middle piece of the spermatozoa. Autophagy activation induced a significant increase in motility and a decrease in PINK1, TOM20 expression and caspase 3/7 activation. In contrast, autophagy inhibition resulted in decreased motility, viability, ATP and intracellular calcium concentration whereas PINK1, TOM20 expression, AMPK phosphorylation and caspase 3/7 activation were significantly increased. In conclusion our results show that autophagy related proteins and upstream regulators are present and functional in human spermatozoa. Modification of mitochondrial proteins expression after autophagy activation/inhibition may be indicating that a specialized form of autophagy named mitophagy may be regulating sperm function such as motility and viability and may be cooperating with apoptosis.

The autophagy-related protein LC3 is processed in stallion spermatozoa during short-and long-term storage and the related stressful conditions.

Use of cooled and frozen semen is becoming increasingly prevalent in the equine industry. However, these procedures cause harmful effects in the sperm cell resulting in reduced cell lifespan and fertility rates. Apoptosis and necrosis-related events are increased during semen cryopreservation. However, a third type of cell death, named autophagy, has not been studied during equine semen storage. Light chain (LC)3 protein is a key component of the autophagy pathway. Under autophagy activation, LC3-I is lipidated and converted to LC3-II. The ratio of LC3-II/LC3-I is widely used as a marker of autophagy activation. The main objective of this study was to investigate whether LC3 is processed during cooling, freezing and the stressful conditions associated with these technologies. A secondary objective was to determine if LC3 processing can be modulated and if that may improve the quality of cryopreserved semen. LC3 processing was studied by Western blot with a specific antibody that recognized both LC3-I and LC3-II. Viability was assessed by flow cytometry. Modulation of LC3-I to LC3-II was studied with known autophagy activators (STF-62247 and rapamycin) or inhibitors (chloroquine and 3-MA) used in somatic cells. The results showed that conversion of LC3-I to LC3-II increased significantly during cooling at 4°C, freezing/thawing and each of the stressful conditions tested (UV radiation, oxidative stress, osmotic stress and changes in temperature). STF-62247 and rapamycin increased the LC3-II/LC3-I ratio and decreased the viability of equine sperm, whereas chloroquine and 3-MA inhibited LC3 processing and maintained the percentage of viable cells after 2 h of incubation at 37°C. Finally, refrigeration at 4°C for 96 h and freezing at -196°C in the presence of chloroquine and 3-MA resulted in higher percentages of viable cells. In conclusion, results showed that an 'autophagy-like' mechanism may be involved in the regulation of sperm viability during equine semen cryopreservation. Modulation of autophagy during these reproductive technologies may result in an improvement of semen quality and therefore in higher fertility rates.

Caspase activation, hydrogen peroxide production and Akt dephosphorylation occur during stallion sperm senescence.

To investigate the mechanisms inducing sperm death after ejaculation, stallion ejaculates were incubated in BWW media during 6 h at 37°C. At the beginning of the incubation period and after 1, 2, 4 and 6 h sperm motility and kinematics (CASA), mitochondrial membrane potential and membrane permeability and integrity were evaluated (flow cytometry). Also, at the same time intervals, active caspase 3, hydrogen peroxide, superoxide anion (flow cytometry) and Akt phosphorylation (flow cytometry) were evaluated. Major decreases in sperm function occurred after 6 h of incubation, although after 1 h decrease in the percentages of motile and progressive motile sperm occurred. The decrease observed in sperm functionality after 6 h of incubation was accompanied by a significant increase in the production of hydrogen peroxide and the greatest increase in caspase 3 activity. Additionally, the percentage of phosphorylated Akt reached a minimum after 6 h of incubation. These results provide evidences that sperm death during in vitro incubation is largely an apoptotic phenomena, probably stimulated by endogenous production of hydrogen peroxide and the lack of prosurvival factors maintaining Akt in a phosphorylated status. Disclosing molecular mechanisms leading to sperm death may help to develop new strategies for stallion sperm conservation.

Identification of apoptotic bodies in equine semen.

Apoptosis in the testis is required to ensure an efficient spermatogenesis. However, sometimes, defective germ cells that are marked for elimination during this process escape elimination in the testes, giving rise to ejaculates with increased percentages of abnormal and apoptotic spermatozoa and a high percentage of apoptotic bodies. Apoptosis markers in the ejaculate have been associated with low fertility, either in animals or humans. Therefore, the goal of this study was to investigate whether fresh equine semen contains apoptotic bodies [initially named Merocyanine 540 (M540) bodies] and to study the relationship between the quantity of these bodies and cell concentration, the volume of ejaculate, viability and motility. Moreover, we also studied whether the presence apoptotic bodies in fresh semen was related to the resistance of the stallion spermatozoa to being incubated at 37 °C or being frozen and thawed. Fresh equine semen was stained with fluorescent dyes such as M540 and Annexin-V. Active Caspase 3 was studied in fresh semen through Western blotting and immunofluorescence with a specific antibody. Sperm kinematics was assessed in fresh, incubated and thawed samples using computer-assisted semen analysis, and viability was evaluated with the LIVE/DEAD Sperm Viability Kit. Overall, our results demonstrate for the first time the presence of apoptotic bodies in equine semen. The quantity of apoptotic bodies was highly variable among stallions and was positively correlated with Caspase 3 activity in fresh samples and negatively correlated with the viability and motility of stallion spermatozoa after the cryopreservation process.

During cooled storage the extender influences processed autophagy marker light chain 3 (LC3B) of stallion spermatozoa.

To investigate the role of the processed autophagy marker light chain 3 (LC3B) protein in sperm survival in stallion semen processing during cooled storage, split ejaculates were diluted in two different extenders, KMT and INRA 96, and LC3B processing and sperm quality evaluated during incubation at 5°C for five days. After 3 days of incubation there was a drop in total motility in both extenders, although the percentage of progressive motile sperm was greater (P<0.05) in samples extended in INRA96. On Day 5 of cooled storage all sperm parameters decreased significantly independent of the extender, however, samples extended in INRA 96 maintained motility values while those extended in KMT had a further decrease in motility compared with data collected on Day 3 of incubation. The percentage of live sperm decreased over the time of incubation, but only in samples incubated in KMT. The extender had a marked effect in LC3B processing during cooled storage. Spermatozoa maintained in KMT extender did not exhibit LC3B processing, while in spermatozoa incubated in INRA96 there was an increase (P<0.01) in LC3B processing after 5 days of cooled storage. Stallion spermatozoa experience LC3B turnover during cooled storage, however, the extent depends on the extender used. Apparently LC3B turnover is associated with enhanced survival.

Sex sorting increases the permeability of the membrane of stallion spermatozoa.

At present, the only repeatable means of selecting the sex of offspring is the Beltsville semen sorting technology using flow cytometry (FC). This technology has reached commercial status in the bovine industry and substantial advances have occurred recently in swine and ovine species. In the equine species, however, the technology is not as well developed. To better understand the changes induced in stallion spermatozoa during the sorting procedure, pooled sperm samples were sorted: sperm motility and kinematics were assessed using computer assisted sperm analysis, sperm membrane integrity was assessed using the YoPro-1 assay, while plasmalemmal stability and lipid architecture were assessed using Merocyanine 540/SYTOX green and Annexin-V, respectively. Lipid peroxidation was also investigated with the probe Bodipy(581/591)-C11. All assays were performed shortly after collection, after incubation and after sex sorting using FC. In order to characterize potential molecular mechanisms implicated in sperm damage, an apoptosis protein antibody dot plot array analysis was performed before and after sorting. While the percentage of total motile sperm remained unchanged, sex sorting reduced the percentages of progressive motile spermatozoa and of rapid spermatozoa as well as curvilinear velocity (VCL). Sperm membranes responded to sorting with an increase in the percentage of YoPro-1 positive cells, suggesting the sorted spermatozoa had a reduced energy status that was confirmed by measuring intracellular ATP content.

The membrane of the mammalian spermatozoa: much more than an inert envelope.

Sperm plasma membrane is a very important structure that functions to protect sperm against extracellular injuries and to respond to physiological challenges. It plays a crucial role during sperm capacitation, in sperm-egg interaction and, finally, in fertilization. Concerning sperm technology, possibly the most important factors causing damage in mammalian spermatozoa membranes are initiated by the osmotic stress generated by dehydration of the cells during freezing and thawing. These changes are rapidly derived to the plasma and organelle membranes that gradually experiment loss of membrane architecture, causing unbalanced production of reactive oxygen species and increased lipid peroxidation. Other procedures such as sperm sorting or liquid storage of sperm also induce harmful changes in the integrity of the membrane. The specific composition of lipids of the sperm membranes may provide clues for understanding the mechanisms behind the differences found in the response to stress in different species. In the present review, we deal with the composition, architecture and organization of the sperm plasma membrane, emphasizing the factors that can affect membrane integrity. The intracellular signalling pathways related with membrane reorganization during capacitation and acrosome reaction are also reviewed.

Seasonal dynamics of sperm morphometric subpopulations and its association with sperm quality parameters in ram ejaculates.

Sperm morphologic assessment is considered an irreplaceable part of standard laboratory routine analyses in the diagnosis of male fertility. Thus, in an attempt to quantify the effects of season on sperm morphology and its functional significance in relation to sperm quality parameters, sperm head morphometric traits were analyzed by using an objective computerized analysis combined with principal components analysis (PCA) cluster analysis to establish the relationship between the distribution of the subpopulations found and sperm quality in each season. There were slight variations on sperm motility and sperm membrane integrity indexes (P > 0.05). However, the mean values for sperm concentration substantially changed among seasons in all individuals studied (P < 0.01). There were significant differences in sperm morphometric parameters (P < 0.01) as well as in the distribution of morphometric subpopulations between seasons (P < 0.001). In conclusion, this study confirmed that there was an important seasonal effect on sperm morphometric traits. In addition, the distribution of these subpopulations seems to be related to the season studied and the ejaculate quality which would be a very important indicator of sperm function. The substantial information derived from these morphometric subpopulations has provided new knowledge which can be used in future studies using sperm morphometry as a seasonal indicator in ram ejaculates.

Dimethylformamide improves the in vitro characteristics of thawed stallion spermatozoa reducing sublethal damage.

A total of 42 ejaculates were used in the experiment; six ejaculates per stallion, obtained from seven Pure Spanish stallions (PRE), were split and frozen in freezing media with different concentrations and combinations of cryoprotectant (CPA): (i) Cáceres (skim milk based extender) containing 2.5% glycerol (2.5GL), (ii) Cáceres containing 1.5% glycerol and 1.5% dimethylformamide (1.5%GL-1.5%DMFA), (iii) Cáceres extender supplemented with 1.5% glycerol and 2.5% dimethylformamide (1.5%GL-2.5%DMFA) and (iv) Cáceres extender supplemented with 4% dimethylformamide (4%DMFA). After at least 4 weeks of storage in liquid nitrogen (LN), straws were thawed and semen analysed by computer-assisted sperm analysis and flow cytometry (membrane lipid architecture (Merocyanine 540), integrity and sublethal damage (YoPro-1) and mitochondrial membrane potential (JC-1)). After thawing, better results were observed in samples frozen in 4%DMFA or in combinations of 1.5%GL-2.5%DMFA, in fact total motility increased by 16% in the 4%DMFA group compared to 2.5%GL (P < 0.05). Also, there was an increment in the percentage of progressive motile sperm in the 1.5%GL-2.5%DMFA group (9.8% 2.5GL vs 19% in the 1.5%GL-2.5%DMFA group p < 0.05); also, samples frozen in the 4%DMFA group had more intact (YoPro-1 negative) sperm post-thawing, 29.3% in 2.5%GL vs 36.7% in 4%DMFA group (p < 0.05). Membrane lipid architecture was not affected by any of the cryoprotectants tested, while samples frozen in 4%DFMA had a lower percentage of mitochondria with lower membrane potential. It is concluded that DMFA improves the outcome of cryopreservation of stallion spermatozoa mainly reducing sublethal cryodamage.

Toxicity of glycerol for the stallion spermatozoa: effects on membrane integrity and cytoskeleton, lipid peroxidation and mitochondrial membrane potential.

Glycerol is, to date, the most widely used cryoprotectant to freeze stallion spermatozoa at concentrations between 2% and 5%. Cryoprotectant toxicity has been claimed to be the single most limiting factor for the success of cryopreservation. In order to evaluate the toxic effects of the concentrations of glycerol used in practice, stallion spermatozoa were incubated in Biggers Whitten and Whittingham (BWW) media supplemented with 0%, 0.5%, 1.5%, 2.5%, 3.5%, and 5% glycerol. In two additional experiments, a hyposmotic (75 mOsm/kg) and a hyperosmotic (900 mOsm/kg) control media were included. Sperm parameters evaluated included cell volume, membrane integrity, lipid peroxidation, caspase 3, 7, and 8 activation, mitochondrial membrane potential, and integrity of the cytoskeleton. Glycerol exerted toxicity at concentrations ≥ 3.5% and the maximal toxicity was observed at 5%. The actin cytoskeleton was especially sensitive to glycerol presence, inducing rapid F actin depolymerization at concentrations over 1.5%. The sperm membrane and the mitochondria were other structures affected. The toxicity of glycerol is apparently related to osmotic and nonosmotic effects. In view of our results the concentration of glycerol in the freezing media for stallion spermatozoa should not surpass 2.5%.

Effect of Hoechst 33342 on stallion spermatozoa incubated in KMT or Tyrodes modified INRA96.

The only known means of effectively separating populations of X and Y bearing sperms is the Beltsville sexing technology. The technology implies that each individual sperm is interrogated for DNA content, measuring the intensity of the fluorescence after staining the spermatozoa with Hoechst 33342. Because there are no data regarding the effect of the staining on stallion sperm, ejaculates were incubated up to 90 min in presence of 0, 4.5, 9, 22.5, 31.5, 45, 54, 67.5, 76.5 and 90 µM of Hoechst 33342, in two media, KMT or INRA-Tyrodes. After 40 and 90 min of incubation, motility (CASA) and membrane integrity (flow cytometry after YoPro-1/Eth staining) were evaluated. In KMT extender sperm motility significantly decreased after 45 min of incubation when sperm were incubated in the presence of concentrations of Hoechst of 45 µM or greater (P<0.05). When incubated in modified INRA96, stallion spermatozoa tolerated greater concentrations of Hoechst, because sperm motility only decreased when incubated in presence of 90 µM (P<0.05) and membrane integrity was not affected. After 90 min of incubation the same effect was observed, but in this case at concentrations over 45 µM the percentage of total motile sperm was also reduced although only in samples incubated in KMT. To produce this effect in samples incubated in Tyrodes modified INRA 96, Hoechst had to be present at concentrations over 67.5 µM. Apparently, the detrimental effect of Hoechst to stallion spermatozoa varies depending on the media, and INRA modified extender may be an alternative to KMT.

Differential glycolytic and glycogenogenic transduction pathways in male and female bovine embryos produced in vitro.

Previous studies have shown that developmental kinetic rates following IVF are lower in female than in male blastocysts and that this may be related to differences in glucose metabolism. In addition, an inhibition of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3-K) inhibits glucose uptake in murine blastocysts. Therefore, the aim of this study was to identify and compare the expression of proteins involved in glucose metabolism (hexokinase-I, HK-I; phosphofructokinase-1, PFK-1; pyruvate kinase 1/2, PK1/2; glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase, GAPDH; glucose transporter-1, GLUT-1; and glycogen synthase kinase-3, GSK-3) in male and female bovine blastocysts to determine whether PI3-K has a role in the regulation of the expression of these proteins. Hexokinase-I, PFK-1, PK1/2, GAPDH and GLUT-1 were present in bovine embryos. Protein expression of these proteins and GSK-3 was significantly higher in male compared with female blastocysts. Inhibition of PI3-K with LY294002 significantly decreased the expression of HK-I, PFK-1, GAPDH, GSK-3A/B and GLUT-1. Results showed that the expression of glycolytic proteins HK-I, PFK-1, GAPDH and PK1/2, and the transporters GLUT-1 and GSK-3 is regulated by PI3-K in bovine blastocysts. Moreover, the differential protein expression observed between male and female blastocysts might explain the faster developmental kinetics seen in males, as the expression of main proteins involved in glycolysis and glycogenogenesis was significantly higher in male than female bovine embryos and also could explain the sensitivity of male embryos to a high concentration of glucose, as a positive correlation between GLUT-1 expression and glucose uptake in embryos has been demonstrated.

Dissecting the molecular damage to stallion spermatozoa: the way to improve current cryopreservation protocols?

We review recent developments in the technology of freezing stallion sperm, paying special attention to the molecular lesions that spermatozoa suffer during freezing and thawing, such as osmotic stress, oxidative damage, and apoptotic changes. We also discuss the applicability of colloidal centrifugation in stallion sperm cryobiology. Increased knowledge about the molecular injuries that occur during cryopreservation may lead to improved protective techniques and thus to further improvements in fertility in the current decade.

Sperm morphometric subpopulations are differentially distributed in rams with different maturity age in cryopreserved ejaculates.

It is widely accepted that sperm morphology is a good indicator of fertility and it has been proposed that sperm quality may be related to subtle changes in sperm head morphology. However, a precise estimation of the morphology of ram sperm would be very useful to improve reproductive success in ovine. Computer-assisted morphometric analysis and clustering analysis have been important tools to study sperm subpopulations in domestic animals. However, to the best of our knowledge, no data exist studing morphometric differences regarding to sperm subpopulations within the ovine ejaculate. The aim of this study was to test the presence and distribution of sperm morphometric subpopulations in cryopreserved ejaculates from yearling and mature rams using an objective method by computer analysis system and to establish the relationship between the distribution of the subpopulations found and sperm quality in each individual ram. Principal component analysis revealed that three principal components for yearlings and four components for mature rams that represented more than 84% of the cumulative variance in both cases. After cluster analysis, three sperm morphometric subpopulations for yearlings (CLY) and four for mature (CLM) rams were identified with defined sperm dimensions and shapes. CLY1 included big, round and short sperm (37%), CLY2 included average size and slightly elliptical and elongated sperm (48%), CLY3 included small, long, elliptical and elongated sperm cells (15%). CLM1 consisted of average size and moderate elliptical and elongated (26%), CLM2 consisted of small, long, elliptical and elongated (31%), CLM3 consisted of small and round (32%) and CLM4 included big, short and round (8%) spermatozoa respectively. There were significant differences in the distribution of the three subpopulations (P < 0.001) as well as in the sperm concentration, total motility (%), sperm viability (%) and the overall (P < 0.05) in the ejaculates among the four yearling rams tested. Same results were found for the four subpopulations and the different sperm quality parameters in the ejaculates among the four mature rams tested. In conclusion, cryopreserved ram semen showed a specific structure with regard to sperm morphometric subpopulations. In addition, the distribution of these subpopulations seems to be related to stud maturity age and the ejaculate quality which would be a very important indicator of sperm function. Thus, analysis of sperm morphometric subpopulation structure together with functional tests could provide valuable information to assess the cryoresistence of ram spermatozoa.

Expression, regulation, and function of progesterone receptors in bovine cumulus oocyte complexes during in vitro maturation.

Progesterone (P4) exerts its effects by binding to specific genomic (nPR-A/B) and non-genomic (mPRalpha/beta, PGRMC1/2) receptors. P4 has a role in the regulation of the ovulatory cycle, but its participation in oocyte maturation in mammals has not yet been clarified. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to characterize the protein expression of P4 receptors (PRs) in bovine oocytes and cumulus cells during in vitro maturation (IVM) and to study the effect of P4 and its receptors on oocyte developmental competence. Cumulus-oocyte complexes (COCs) were subjected to IVM, in vitro fertilization, and in vitro culture. IVM was performed for 24 h in the presence or absence of P4, luteinizing hormone (LH), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), trilostane, promegestone (R5020), mifepristone (RU 486), or antibodies against mPRalpha or mPRbeta. Protein expression of PRs was studied by Western blotting and immunofluorescence. The results demonstrate the presence of both genomic and nongenomic PRs in bovine COCs. The dynamic changes observed in the protein expression of PRs following IVM or in response to supplementation with LH, FSH, or P4 suggest an important role during bovine oocyte maturation. Inhibition of P4 synthesis by cumulus cells or blocking of nPR and mPR alpha activity produced a decrease in bovine embryo development, indicating that P4 intracellular signaling is mediated by its interaction with nuclear and membrane PRs and is important for oocyte developmental competence.

Head morphometric changes in cryopreserved ram spermatozoa are related to sexual maturity.

The importance of understanding the sperm changes after the cryopreservation process has been emphasized in human and veterinary andrology. In previous studies, we have shown that the morphometric characteristics assessed by computer-assisted analysis following the freeze-thawing process revealed differences in terms of dimension and shape between individuals that may be related to bio-physiologic factors such as sexual maturity. The purpose of this study was to determine if there are differences associated with cryoresistance and sperm head morphometric dimensions in individuals with different sexual maturity ratings (SMRs; 12, 30 and 96 months of age). Ejaculates from nine normospermic fertile rams with different SMRs were analyzed in an attempt to quantify the morphometric dimensions and the shape of sperm heads from each group after the cryopreservation process. The mean values of sperm concentration among individuals with different SMRs were significantly different (P < 0.01). Cryopreservation substantially reduced sperm motility and plasma membrane integrity irrespective of SMR assessed, with young animals being the most affected (P < 0.01). Sperm quality at thawing for all sperm parameters evaluated was significantly higher for old individuals than for middle-aged or young individuals (P < 0.01). There were no significant differences in the sperm head dimension or shape among middle-aged and old individuals (P > 0.05). However, significant differences were detected in area, perimeter and width (lower values) and length, ellipticity and elongation (higher values) in old or middle-aged individuals compared with young individuals (P < 0.01). In conclusion, this study confirms that ram age is related to sperm morphometric dimensions, and sperm size and shape may affect spermatozoa survival, being good indicators of freezability. Therefore, the present study provides information on the morphometric maturation of ram sperm and supports the idea that the dimensions of spermatozoa may be taken as an approximate indication of its relative maturity.

Identification and regulation of glycogen synthase kinase-3 during bovine embryo development.

The aim of this study was to examine the presence and regulation of glycogen synthase kinase-3alpha (GSK3A) and GSK-3beta (GSK3B) in bovine embryos and their possible roles in embryo development. Our results show that GSK3A and GSK3B are present in bovine embryos at the two-cell stage to the hatched blastocyst stage. Bovine embryo development was associated with an increase in the phosphorylation of both isoforms, being statistically significant at blastocyst and hatched blastocyst stages, compared with earlier stages. Inhibition of GSK3 with CT99021 (3 microM) resulted in a significant increase in the percentage and quality of blastocysts, while inhibition of GSK3 with lithium chloride (LiCl; 20 mM) significantly reduced at the proportion of eight-cell embryos on day 3 and inhibited blastocyst formation. The use of LY294002 (10 microM), a specific inhibitor of phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase, also produced a significant decrease in embryo development. In addition, treatment with LiCl and LY294002 produced a significant decrease in the serine phosphorylation of both isoforms of GSK3. Finally, CT99021 and LiCl reduced the phosphorylation of beta-catenin on Ser45 in two-cell embryos, while LY294002 increased it. Despite the fact that LiCl inhibited GSK3 activity, as demonstrated by beta-catenin phosphorylation, its effects on the bovine embryo could be mediated through other signaling pathways leading finally to a decrease in the phosphorylation of GSK3 and a reduction in embryo development. Therefore, in conclusion, GSK3A/B serine phosphorylation was positively correlated with embryo development, indicating the importance of an accurate regulation of GSK3 activity during developmental stages to achieve normal bovine embryo development.

Morphometry of porcine spermatozoa and its functional significance in relation with the motility parameters in fresh semen.

Both the study and the relationship between sperm design and sperm function have been a target of several researchers. In our study we have evaluated the relationship between the morphometry of sperm head and midpiece as well as the relationship between morphometry of these two spermatic components and sperm motion characteristics in the boar. Analysis of regression (lineal and multiple) and principal components analysis were used for the study of these relationships. Semen samples from five Iberian boars were taken for analysis. Analysis of morphometry was assessed by CASMA system and motility by CASA system. Sperm midpiece showed a significant relationship (positive or negative, depending on the morphometric parameter evaluated) with sperm head. VSL, LIN, STR, BCF and VAP showed a significant relationship with several head and midpiece morphometric parameters. Finally, through the analysis of multiple lineal regression we obtained several statistical models that predict STR, LIN, VCL, ALH, BCF, PC1 and PC2 (the last two variables have been obtained from a principal components analysis) as a function of one, two or three morphometric parameters. Our results suggest a co-evolution of sperm head and midpiece and in addition that sperm motion characteristics of porcine spermatozoa are influenced by morphometry of head and midpiece.

Morphometric changes in boar spermatozoa induced by cryopreservation.

Computer-assisted sperm morphometry analysis was used to determine the effects of cryopreservation on boar sperm head and midpiece morphometry. Sperm-rich fractions were collected from five mature boars. Three microscope slides were prepared from single extended sperm samples prior freezing and post-thawing. All slides were stained with Hemacolor, and 250 sperm images were obtained from each slide. The sperm head dimensions for length, width, area, perimeter and four shape factors and sperm-midpiece dimensions for area, width, angle and distance were determined in each spermatozoa. The effects of sperm freezing on sperm dimensions within and among boars were determined. A previous discriminant analysis of the results was able to correctly classify a 78.3 and 82% of fresh and frozen-thawed spermatozoa respectively. Sperm heads were significantly smaller in cryopreserved spermatozoa than in the companion extended samples for length, width, area and perimeter. Sperm midpieces were also significantly smaller in cryopreserved spermatozoa for width and area. The highest changes in morphometric dimensions after the freeze-thawing process were found in the midpiece of spermatozoa. The variability of morphometric measurements only was significantly different between fresh and thawed samples for head rugosity and midpiece area. The effects of cryopreservation on morphometric parameters were similar in the boars, which allow us to conclude that cryopreservation process does not have a different effect in each individual boar. In summary, morphometric changes associated with the cryopreservation process on boar spermatozoa do not apparently depends on an effect at individual level.

Porcine sperm motility is regulated by serine phosphorylation of the glycogen synthase kinase-3alpha.

Sperm functions are critically controlled through the phosphorylation state of specific proteins. Glycogen synthase kinase-3 (GSK3) is a serine/threonine kinase with two different isoforms (alpha and beta), the enzyme activity of which is inhibited by serine phosphorylation. Recent studies suggest that GSK3 is involved in the control of bovine sperm motility. Our aim was to investigate whether GSK3 is present in porcine spermatozoa and its role in the function of these cells. This work shows that both isoforms of GSK3 are present in whole cell lysates of porcine sperm and are phosphorylated on serine in spermatozoa stimulated with the cAMP analog, 8Br-cAMP. A parallel increase in serine phosphorylation of the isoform GSK3alpha, but not in the isoform GSK3beta, is observed after treatments that also induce a significant increase in porcine sperm velocity parameters. Therefore, a significant positive correlation among straight-line velocity, circular velocity, average velocity, rapid-speed spermatozoa, and GSK3alpha serine phosphorylation levels exists. Inhibition of GSK3 activity by alsterpaullone leads to a significant increase in the percentage of rapid- and medium-speed spermatozoa as well as in all sperm velocity parameters and coefficients. Moreover, pretreatment of porcine spermatozoa with alsterpaullone significantly increased the percentage of capacitated porcine spermatozoa and presents no effect in the number of acrosome-reacted porcine spermatozoa. Our work suggests that the isoform GSK3alpha plays a negative role in the regulation of porcine sperm motility and points out the possibility that sperm motile quality might be modulated according the activity state of GSK3alpha.