Mother-child adrenocortical synchrony; Moderation by dyadic relational behavior.

Mother-child adrenocortical synchrony, the coupling of cortisol (CT) secretion in mother and child, has been associated with shared parent-child experiences and maladaptive familial contexts. Yet, few studies tested adrenocortical synchrony in diurnal CT patterns. Guided by the bio-behavioral synchrony model, we examined whether mother-child relational behavior and maternal psychopathology may moderate the degree of concordance between mother and child's diurnal CT. Ninety-seven mothers and their six-year old children participated in two groups; mothers diagnosed with major depression disorder (N=28) and non-depressed controls (N=69). Mother-child interactions were observed and coded for dyadic reciprocity and dyadic tension and diurnal cortisol was collected from mother and child over two consecutive weekend days. Concordance between maternal and child's diurnal CT was found, significant above and beyond time of measurement. Maternal depression, while associated with attenuated child diurnal CT variability, was unrelated to adrenocortical synchrony. Higher child diurnal CT production predicted a stronger linkage between maternal and child's diurnal CT, suggesting that greater child physiological stress is associated with increased susceptibility to the influences of maternal stress physiology. Mother-child reciprocity was related to lower adrenocortical synchrony. Findings suggest that higher adrenocortical synchrony is associated with greater physiological stress and less adaptive dyadic relational patterns. Results raise the possibility that diurnal adrenocortical synchrony taps a unique aspect of HPA-axis functioning whose role in the cross-generational transfer of stress physiology requires further research.

Maternal depression across the first years of life compromises child psychosocial adjustment; relations to child HPA-axis functioning.

Maternal depression across the first years of life negatively impacts children's development. One pathway of vulnerability may involve functioning of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. We utilize a community cohort of 1983 women with no comorbid risk repeatedly assessed for depression from birth to six years to form two groups; chronically depressed (N=40) and non-depressed (N=91) women. At six years, mother and child underwent psychiatric diagnosis, child salivary cortisol (CT) was assessed three times during a home-visit, mother-child interaction was videotaped, and child empathy was coded from behavioral paradigms. Latent Growth curve Model using Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) estimated the links between maternal depression and mother's negative parenting and three child outcomes; psychopathology, social withdrawal, and empathy as related to child CT baseline and variability. Depressed mothers displayed more negative parenting and their children showed more Axis-I psychopathology and social withdrawal. SEM analysis revealed that maternal depression was associated with reduced CT variability, which predicted higher child psychopathology and social withdrawal. Whereas all children exhibited similar initial levels of CT, children of controls reduced CT levels over time while children of depressed mothers maintained high, non-flexible levels. Mother negativity was related to lower initial CT levels, which predicted decreased empathy. Findings suggest that chronic maternal depression may compromise children's social-emotional adjustment by diminishing HPA-system flexibility as well as limiting the mother's capacity to provide attuned and predictable caregiving.

MATERNAL DEPRESSION AND CHILD OXYTOCIN RESPONSE; MODERATION BY MATERNAL OXYTOCIN AND RELATIONAL BEHAVIOR.

BACKGROUND: Maternal postpartum depression (PPD) carries long-term detrimental effects on children's well-being, yet the mechanisms of transmission remain unclear. One possible pathway of vulnerability involves the oxytocinergic (OT) system, which is transferred from mother to child via sensitive caregiving and is disrupted in PPD. METHOD: A large birth cohort (N = 1983) of women were repeatedly assessed for depression from birth to 6 years. Utilizing an extreme case design, two matched cohorts were formed; mothers chronically depressed from birth to 6 years and nondepressed controls (N = 97, depressed = 41, nondepressed; N = 56). At 6 years, mothers and children underwent psychiatric diagnosis, urinary OT was assayed from mother and child before and after social contact, and mother-child interactions were coded. RESULTS: Baseline OT and OT response of mother and child were interrelated and children of depressed mothers showed low baseline OT and attenuated OT response. Child OT response was negatively predicted by maternal depression, child Axis-I psychopathology, maternal expressed negative affect, and child social withdrawal. Interaction effect of maternal baseline OT and depression emerged. Slope analysis indicated that when maternal OT was medium or low, child OT response was negatively impacted by maternal depression. However, when maternal OT was high, child OT was unaffected, suggesting that maternal OT functionality buffers the effects of depression on the child. CONCLUSION: Results suggest involvement of the OT system in the cross-generational transfer of vulnerability, as well as resilience, from depressed mothers to their children. Because the OT system is open to interventions that enhance maternal touch and contact, findings have important implications for targeted early dyadic inventions.

Oxytocin and vasopressin support distinct configurations of social synchrony.

Social synchrony - the coordination of behavior between interacting partners during social contact - is learned within the parent-infant bond and appears in a unique form in mothers and fathers. In this study, we examined hormonal effects of OT and AVP on maternal and paternal behavioral patterns and detail the processes of parent-infant social synchrony as they combine with hormonal activity. Participants included 119 mothers and fathers (not couples) and their 4-6 month-old infants. Baseline OT and AVP were collected from parents and a 10-minute face-to-face interaction with the infant was filmed. Interactions were micro-coded for parent-child contact, social signals, and social- versus-object focused play. Proportions and lag-sequential patterns of social behaviors were computed. Mothers provided more affectionate contact, while fathers provided more stimulatory contact. Parents with high OT levels displayed significantly more affectionate contact compared to parents with low OT and constructed the interaction towards readiness for social engagement by increasing social salience in response to infant social gaze. In contrast, parents with high AVP engaged in stimulatory contact and tended to increase object-salience when infants showed bids for social engagement. OT levels were independently predicted by the amount of affectionate contact and the durations of gaze synchrony, whereas AVP levels were predicted by stimulatory contact, joint attention to objects, and the parent increasing object salience following infant social gaze. Results further specify how synchronous bio-behavioral processes with mother and father support the human infant's entry into the family unit and prepare the child for joining the larger social world. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled Oxytocin and Social Behav.