Impact of type 2 diabetes on the capacity of human macrophages infected with Mycobacterium tuberculosis to modulate monocyte differentiation through a bystander effect.

Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2D) is a risk factor for the development of tuberculosis (TB) through mechanisms poorly understood. Monocytes and macrophages are key effector cells to control TB, but they are also subverted by Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb). Specifically, Mtb can induce a bystander effect that skews monocyte differentiation towards macrophages with a permissive phenotype to infection. Here, we evaluated whether T2D impacts this TB aspect. Our approach was to differentiate monocytes from healthy control (HC) subjects and T2D patients into macrophages (MDM), and then assess their response to Mtb infection, including their secretome content and bystander effect capacity. Through flow cytometric analyses, we found a lower level of activation markers in MDM from T2D patients than from HC in response to mock (HLA-DR, CD86 and CD163) or Mtb challenge (CD14 and CD80). In spite of high TGF-ß1 levels in mock-infected MDM from T2D patients, cytometric bead arrays indicated that there were no major differences in the secretome cytokine content in these cells relative to HC-MDM, even in response to Mtb. Mimicking a bystander effect, the secretome of Mtb-infected HC-MDM drove HC monocytes towards MDM with a permissive phenotype for Mtb intracellular growth. However, the secretome from Mtb-infected T2D-MDM did not exacerbate the Mtb load compared to secretome from Mtb-infected HC-MDM, possibly due to the high IL-1ß production relative to Mtb-infected HC-MDM. Collectively, despite T2D affecting the basal MDM activation, our approach revealed that it has no major consequence on their response to Mtb or capacity to generate a bystander effect influencing monocyte differentiation.

Auto- medicación y auto-prescripción en el personal de salud del primer nivel de atención de México, Bolivia y Ecuador / Selfmedication and selfprescription in health care workers in primary care in Mexico, Bolivia and Ecuador

Introducción. La prevalencia general de la automedicación en la población general fluctúa de 27.3% a 61.3%. En trabajadores de la salud está menos documentado (Definido como auto prescripción), así como su frecuencia y las características del personal médico. Material y métodos. Se trata de un estudio comparativo transversal de 3 países, México (178), Bolivia (250) y Ecuador (130) en población de Médicos Familiares y Médicos Generales de Primer nivel de atención en salud; sexo y edad indistintos, activos en consulta pública o institucional. El muestreo fue por conveniencia calculado por fórmula. Se usó una encuesta con datos demográficos, Frecuencia de automedicación y auto prescripción, patologías donde se usaron, y razones de uso y fuentes de información. Se capturaron y analizaron en SPSS versión 20. Se utilizaron estadísticas descriptivas e inferenciales como ji-cuadrada y Kruskal Wallis. Aprobado por el comité de ética de dos países. Resultados. De los participantes 58.0% son médicos familiares, la mayoría femeninas (p<.05), con pareja, y con promedio de edad de 39.3. Laboran en el sistema público 42.2%. Se automedicaron y auto prescribieron más medicamentos los médicos en México y menos en Ecuador (p<.0001). En general, en el último mes, 61.5% de los profesionales estudiados se auto medicó (media 2.99 veces), y menor porcentaje se auto prescribió 35.8%, (media 1.28 veces) principalmente analgésicos y antibióticos (p<.0001) y por patologías respiratorias (p<.05). Las variables numéricas no cumplieron los supuestos de normalidad. Conclusión. Más de la mitad de los profesionales estudiados se auto medicó y más de un tercio se auto prescribió (antibióticos y analgésicos), esto más en México (AU)

Introduction. The general prevalence of selfmedication in the general population fluctuates from 27.3% to 61.3%. It is less documented in health workers (denominated as selfprescription), as well as its frequency and the characteristics of medical personnel. Material and methods. This is a cross- sectional, comparative study of 3 countries, Mexico (178), Bolivia (250) and, Ecuador (130) in the population of Family Physicians and General Practitioners of the first level of care; indistinct sex and age, active practice in public or institutional consultation. Sampling was for convenience calculated by a formula. A survey with demographic data, II Frequency of self-medication and self-prescription, pathologies where they were used, reasons for use and, sources of information were used. They were captured and analyzed in SPSS version 20. Descriptive and inferential statistics such as chi-square and Kruskal Wallis were used. It was approved by the ethic committee from two countries. Results. Of the participants, 58.0% are family doctors, the majority female (p <.05), with a partner, and with an average age of 39.3 years; 42.2% work in the public system. More physicians in Mexico and fewer in Ecuador used self-medicated and self- prescribed medications (p <.0001). In general in the last month, 61.5% of the professionals self-medicated (average 2.99 times), and a lower percentage (35.8%,)self-prescribed (average 1.28 times) mainly pain relievers and antibiotics (p <.0001) and for respiratory pathologies (p <.05). The numerical variables did not meet the assumptions of normality. Conclusion. More than half of the professionals studied practice self-medication and more than third antibiotics and analgesics as self-prescription this more in Mexico (AU)

Antibiotic prescriptions for suspected respiratory tract infection in primary care in South America.

OBJECTIVES: To describe and compare antibiotic prescribing patterns for primary care patients with respiratory tract infections (RTIs) in four South American countries. METHODS: This was a prospective observational study. General practitioners (GPs) from Argentina, Bolivia, Paraguay and Uruguay registered data about all consultations of patients with suspected RTIs in the winter of 2014 (June-August). Variation in antibiotic prescriptions was assessed using a two-level hierarchical logistic model. RESULTS: Participating GPs (n = 171) registered 11 446 patients with suspected RTI; 3701 (33%) of these received an antibiotic prescription. There was a wide variation across countries in the use and selection of antibiotics. For example, 94% of patients with acute bronchitis were prescribed antibiotics in Bolivia, while in Uruguay only 21% received antibiotics. Amoxicillin was the most commonly prescribed antibiotic across countries, but prescription rates varied between 45% in Bolivia and 69% in Uruguay. Compared with the overall mean prescribing rate, and after adjusting for clinical presentation and demographics, prescribing of antibiotics varied by a factor of 6, the OR ranging from 0.37 (95% CI = 0.21-0.65) in Uruguay to 2.58 (95% CI = 1.66-4) in Bolivia. CONCLUSIONS: The large variation in use and selection of antibiotics across countries is not explained by different patient populations. It could be explained by diagnostic uncertainty and contextual characteristics beyond clinical practice. Reducing uncertainty and country variation requires greater support from the healthcare systems by providing GPs with evidence-based guidelines and tools to apply them.

Analisis comparativo de la certificación, recertificacion y acreditación en Latinoamerica para la especialidad de Medicina Familiar y Comunitaria / Comparative analysis of certification, certification and accreditation in Latin America for the specialty of Family and Community Medicine / Análise comparada dos processos de certificação, recertificação e acreditação em Medicina de Família e Comunidade na América Latina

La certificación y acreditación de competencias profesionales son actividades de cualquier área de formación profesional que existen en el mundo, y la profesión médica no ha estado ajena a ellas. Este estudio inicia en la V Cumbre Iberoamericana de Medicina Familiar realizada en Quito, Ecuador; en la cual se planifica una investigación de tipo descriptivo basada en la aplicación del método comparado denominado análisis entre países o cross-national, que analiza información comparativa de 8 países de Latinoamérica (México, Ecuador, Brasil, Bolivia, Argentina, Paraguay, Venezuela y Chile). El análisis documental muestra que hay diferencias importantes entre países; desde Ecuador, que no tiene implementado ningún proceso de certificación, recertificación y acreditación; Argentina, que tiene proceso de certificación, y en marcha los procesos de recertificación y acreditación; Brasil, Chile y Venezuela, que tienen sólo los procesos de certificación y acreditación; Venezuela no tiene implementado el proceso de recertificación; México, Paraguay y Bolivia que tienen los tres procesos implementados. El estudio demuestra cómo los países del concierto latinoamericano han avanzado a ritmos distintos en sus procesos de certificación, recertificación y acreditación, y tienen estructuras de organización diferentes para los mismos fines.

The certification and accreditation of professional competences are activities that any area of vocational training in the world puts it, and the medical Profession has not been alien to her. This study began in the V Ibero-American summit of Family Medicine in Quito Ecuador, in which a descriptive research based on the planned application of the method called analysis compared between countries or cross-national, comparative information analyzing 8 countries Latin America (Mexico, Ecuador, Brazil, Bolivia, Argentina, Paraguay, Venezuela and Chile). The documentary analysis in each country shows that there are significant differences between countries, from Ecuador has not implemented any certification process, recertification and accreditation; Argentina has certification process; up processes certification and accreditation, Brazil, Chile and Venezuela, which have only the processes of certification and accreditation; Venezuela has not implemented the process of recertification. Mexico, Paraguay and Bolivia that have implemented the three processes. The study demonstrates how the Latin American countries have advanced concert at different rates in their certification processes, recertification and accreditation, which have different organizational structures for the same purposes.

Certificação e acreditação de competências são atividades de qualquer área de formação profissional no mundo, e a profissão médica não tem sido alheia a elas. Este estudo teve início na V Cumbre Ibero-Americana de Medicina de Família e Comunidade em Quito, Equador, com uma pesquisa descritiva baseada no método de análise comparada entre países, ou método cross-national, que analisa os processos de certificação, recertificação e acreditação em 8 países da América Latina (México, Equador, Brasil, Bolívia, Argentina, Paraguai, Venezuela e Chile). A análise dos resultados mostra que existem diferenças importantes entre os países, desde o Equador, que não implementou qualquer processo de certificação, recertificação ou acreditação; a Argentina tem processo de certificação e processos de recertificação e acreditação em andamento; Brasil, Chile e Venezuela têm apenas os processos de certificação e acreditação; chegando ao México, Paraguai e Bolívia, que contam com os três processos implementados. O estudo demonstra como os países da América Latina têm avançado em ritmos diferentes em seus processos de certificação, recertificação e acreditação e têm diferentes estruturas organizacionais para os mesmos fins.