A review on microplastics and nanoplastics in the environment: Their occurrence, exposure routes, toxic studies, and potential effects on human health.

Microplastics (MPs) and nanoplastics (NPs) are emerging environmental pollutants, having a major ecotoxicological concern to humans and many other biotas, especially aquatic animals. The physical and chemical compositions of MPs majorly determine their ecotoxicological risks. However, comprehensive knowledge about the exposure routes and toxic effects of MPs/NPs on animals and human health is not fully known. Here this review focuses on the potential exposure routes, human health impacts, and toxicity response of MPs/NPs on human health, through reviewing the literature on studies conducted in different in vitro and in vivo experiments on organisms, human cells, and the human experimental exposure models. The current literature review has highlighted ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contacts as major exposure routes of MPs/NPs. Further, oxidative stress, cytotoxicity, DNA damage, inflammation, immune response, neurotoxicity, metabolic disruption, and ultimately affecting digestive systems, immunology, respiratory systems, reproductive systems, and nervous systems, as serious health consequences.

Bioactivity of citrus seed for mosquito-borne diseases larval control.

This study aimed to determine the activity of citrus-seed extract against Ae. aegypti and Cx. quinquefasciatus larvae. The results indicated that ethanol citrus-seed extract showed the best killing effect on Ae. aegypti larvae, followed by local liquor, and water, with LC50 of 2,267.71, 6,389.22, and 135,319.40 ppm, respectively, whereas against Cx. quinquefasciatus larvae, the LC50 were 2,639.27, 5,611.66, and 127,411.88 ppm, respectively. Temephos was tested against Ae. aegypti larvae; the LC50 was 0.00057 ppm, which was nearly 4,000,000 times less than ethanol citrus-seed extract. When ethanol citrus-seed extract and temephos were tested with Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus), a standard environmental organism, using LC50 of Ae. aegypti larvae at 2,267 and 0.00057 ppm, respectively, fish mortality was 0%. The results suggested that ethanol citrus-seed extract had no harmful effect on the fish, and that temephos, which is recommended by WHO, was safe for use in drinking water. However, when the LC50 dose that killed Ae. aegypti larvae for local liquor (6,389 ppm) and water extract (135,319 ppm) were tested with fish, the mortality rates were 35% and 100%, respectively. On the whole, the results suggested that ethanol citrus-seed extract is environmentally friendly and can be used in the control of Ae. aegypti and Cx. quinquefasciatus larvae.