Sexual Attraction and Non-Suicidal Self-Harm: The Role of Stressors and Psychological Mediators.

Non-suicidal self-harm (NSSH) is a serious concern for the well-being of youth. Stressors relate to greater NSSH risk, such as being non-heterosexual in a heteronormative society. Other stressors may include traumatic experiences. These relationships may be mediated by psychological factors (depressed mood, anxiety, anger, and self-esteem) as well as contextual factors (support from parents and peers). The purpose of this study was to examine NSHH ideation and behavior among Icelandic youth, as well as relationships with stressors and mediators. Students in Icelandic high schools (N = 8921, 50.8% female) completed an in-class survey in the year 2016. Results showed an elevated risk of NSSH ideation and behavior among bisexual and homosexual youth. Mediation analyses showed that, for girls, being bisexual related to greater NSSH ideation and behavior, and these relationships were mediated by depressed mood, anger, and self-esteem, as well as by support from parents and peers. For boys, however, both homosexual and bisexual attraction related to greater risk for NSSH ideation and behavior, which was mediated by depressed mood, anger, and self-esteem. These results suggest that NSSH risk factors vary by gender and, therefore, they may benefit from different interventions to stop and prevent this behavior. This is the first study of its kind in Iceland, where sexual minority stress may need further study within the Nordic context.

A Virtual Reality Courtroom for Survivors of Sexual Violence: A Mixed-Method Pilot Study on Application Possibilities.

This mixed-method pilot study examined the application possibilities of a virtual courtroom to support survivors of sexual violence who may experience courtroom-associated distress. Female sexual violence survivors (n = 13) who had testified in court following victimization entered an interactive virtual courtroom replica. Their reactions were measured quantitatively and qualitatively. The virtual courtroom evoked both subjective and physiological stress. Participants perceived the virtual reality environment as similar to the real-life courtroom. Most reported negative experiences from interacting with the criminal justice system. The virtual courtroom is a possible future strategy to support survivors when reporting violence to the justice system.

Prevalence of trauma exposure and PTSD symptoms among the Icelandic population: gender and regional differences.

AIM: The primary aim of this cross-sectional study was to provide descriptive data about the lifetime prevalence of trauma exposure with a particular focus on sexual violence and natural disasters and to assess the prevalence of symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in the Icelandic population. In addition, the aim was to investigate whether PTSD symptoms, trauma types and prevalence differed by gender and geographical location. METHOD: A representative sample of the population between the ages of 18 and 80 years was randomly selected from the Icelandic National Registrar. The study included a total of 1766 participants consisting of 930 (52.7%) women and 836 (47.3%) men, with an overall mean age of 49.9 years (standard deviation 16.1). Participants were contacted by phone and asked questions from the Lifetime Events Checklist (LEC-5) to assess lifetime exposure to traumatic events. Individuals who had experienced traumatic events completed the PTSD Checklist for DSM-5 (PCL-5) to assess PTSD symptoms. RESULTS: Exposure to trauma is common among the Icelandic population, with 84.3% of the participants experiencing at least one kind of trauma. Of those exposed to trauma, 10.5% fulfilled criteria indicating a higher risk of PTSD. The prevalence of sexual violence and other unwanted sexual experiences was relatively high (16.2% and 24.4%, respectively) compared with other national studies. Women were almost four times more likely than men to have been exposed to sexual violence (24.9% vs 6.4%), and were more likely to have been exposed to other unwanted sexual experience (35.1% vs 12.4%, respectively). Exposure to natural disasters is frequent but with great geographical variation. CONCLUSIONS: This study highlights the high prevalence of trauma in Iceland, revealing significant gender disparities in sexual violence and geographical variations in natural disaster exposure.

Associations among posttraumatic growth, demographic characteristics, posttraumatic stress symptoms, and trauma type, with a focus on sexual violence.

This study assessed posttraumatic growth (PTG) across multiple trauma types and by demographic characteristics (i.e., sex, age, education). Moreover, we examined the association between PTG and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms as well as the characteristics and predictors of PTG after sexual violence. A phone survey was conducted in a nationally representative sample of 1,766 Icelandic adults. In total, 1,528 individuals reported having experienced some form of trauma and were included in the analysis, and 563 reported experiencing sexual violence. Interpersonal trauma (e.g., sexual violence, emotional abuse, and domestic violence) was associated with the highest levels of PTG. Moderate levels of PTSD symptoms were associated with the highest levels of PTG, whereas high- or low-level PTSD symptoms were related to less PTG. Women reported significantly more PTG than men, d = 0.16 and survivors of sexual violence reported significantly more PTG than individuals who reported other forms of trauma exposure, d = 0.28. Among sexual violence survivors, no demographic factors were associated with PTG, but cumulative trauma and positive social reactions were significantly related to higher levels of PTG. This study highlights that personal growth can result from aversive experiences and suggests a curvilinear association between PTG and PTSD symptoms.

Effect of the COVID-19 pandemic on adolescent mental health and substance use up to March, 2022, in Iceland: a repeated, cross-sectional, population-based study.

BACKGROUND: Poor mental health in the first year of the COVID-19 pandemic has been well documented in adolescents; however, less is known about the longer-term effect of the pandemic. We aimed to examine adolescent mental health and substance use as well as covariates associated with these outcomes 1 year or more into the pandemic. METHODS: A nationwide sample of adolescents aged 13-18 years enrolled in school in Iceland were invited to complete surveys administered during October-November or February-March, 2018, October-November, 2020, February-March or October-November, 2021, and February-March 2022. The survey was in Icelandic for all administrations and offered to adolescents aged 13-15 years in English in 2020 and 2022 and in Polish in 2022. Surveys assessed depressive symptoms (Symptom Checklist-90); mental wellbeing (Short Warwick Edinburgh Mental Wellbeing Scale); and the frequency of cigarette smoking, e-cigarette use, and alcohol intoxication. Covariates comprised age, gender, and migration status as determined by language spoken at home, level of social restrictions based on residency, parental social support, and sleep duration (≥8 h nightly). Weighted mixed-effect models were used to determine the effect of time and the covariates on mental health and substance use. The main outcomes were assessed in all participants with more than 80% of the necessary data, and multiple imputation was used to handle missing data. Bonferroni corrections were used to adjust for multiple testing and analyses were considered significant at a p value of <0·0017. FINDINGS: 64 071 responses were submitted and analysed between 2018 and 2022. Elevated depressive symptoms and worsened mental wellbeing across girls and boys aged 13-18 years were observed to have been maintained up to 2 years into the pandemic (p>0·0017). Alcohol intoxication initially decreased during the pandemic but increased again as social restrictions eased (p<0·0001). No changes were observed in cigarette smoking and e-cigarette use during the COVID-19 pandemic. Higher levels of parental social support and an average sleep duration of 8 h or more per night were associated with mental health better outcomes and less substance use (p<0·0001). Social restrictions and migration background were inconsistently associated with the outcomes. INTERPRETATION: Population-level prevention targeting adolescent depressive symptoms should be prioritised in health policy in the wake of COVID-19. FUNDING: Icelandic Research Fund.

Stressful life events, psychological symptoms, and social support of children and young asylum-seekers in Iceland.

BACKGROUND: Children and young asylum-seekers are often exposed to stressful life events (SLEs) and risk developing psychological symptoms. However, risk and protective factors can positively and negatively influence this vulnerable group's mental health. AIMS: To examine the SLE experiences and psychological symptoms of children and youth who seek refuge in Iceland. And to study the role that gender, travelling (un)accompanied and perceived social support play in the development of psychological symptoms for this population. METHODS: Participants were 75 children and youth of ages 13 to 24 years who sought asylum in Iceland (M = 19.7, SD =3.0, 66.7% male). Sociodemographic and social support data were collected via face-to-face interviews, with the help of interpreters when required, while SLEs, post-traumatic stress, depression, anxiety and behavioural symptoms measures were administered to participants. RESULTS: The results indicated that participants who travelled alone to Iceland had experienced more SLEs than those who travelled accompanied. SLE experiences were associated with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and other psychological symptoms. Results also revealed that SLE and perceived peer support played a significant role in predicting PTSD symptoms. CONCLUSIONS: Children and young asylum-seekers are exposed to a high number of SLEs, which increases their risk of developing psychological problems. This potential risk underlines the need for early assessments and intervention. Moreover, higher levels of social support were related to less severe PTSD symptoms, suggesting that social resources act as protective factors for these children and youth in helping them cope with SLEs.

Adolescent well-being amid the COVID-19 pandemic: Are girls struggling more than boys?

BACKGROUND: Differential effects of the coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) pandemic and associated public restrictions on adolescent girls and boys are emerging but have not been elucidated. This study examined gender differences across broad indicators of adolescent well-being during the COVID-19 pandemic in Iceland, and explored potential explanations for these differences. METHODS: In total, 523 youth (56.5% girls) born in Iceland in 2004 completed measures on mental health problems (depressive symptoms, anger and suicide attempts) and measures designed for this study to assess broad indicators of adolescent well-being (e.g., day-to-day life, academic performance, family and peer relationships, and mental and physical health) and behavioral changes during the COVID-19 pandemic. Mental health problems during the pandemic were compared to expected scores based on nationwide ratings of same-aged peers in 2018. RESULTS: Although both boys and girls appeared affected, girls reported a greater negative impact across all the broad indicators of well-being and behavioral change during COVID-19 than boys, and their depressive symptoms were above and beyond the expected nationwide scores (t(1514) = 4.80, p < .001, Cohen's d = 0.315). Higher depressive symptoms were associated with increased passive social media use and decreased connecting with family members via telephone or social media among girls, and decreased sleeping and increased online gaming alone among boys. Concern about others contracting COVID-19, changes in daily and school routines, and not seeing friends in person were among the primary contributors to poor mental health identified by youth, particularly girls. CONCLUSIONS: Adolescents were broadly negatively affected by the COVID-19 pandemic and accompanying restrictions; however, this negative impact was more pronounced in girls. The findings suggest that a steady routine and remaining socially connected may help youth cope with the uncertainty and social restrictions associated with a pandemic. Moreover, healthcare providers, teachers, and other professionals should pay close attention to depressive symptoms among girls during a pandemic.

Depressive symptoms, mental wellbeing, and substance use among adolescents before and during the COVID-19 pandemic in Iceland: a longitudinal, population-based study.

BACKGROUND: Adolescence represents a crucial developmental period in shaping mental health trajectories. In this study, we investigated the effect of the COVID-19 pandemic on mental health and substance use during this sensitive developmental stage. METHODS: In this longitudinal, population-based study, surveys were administered to a nationwide sample of 13-18-year-olds in Iceland in October or February in 2016 and 2018, and in October, 2020 (during the COVID-19 pandemic). The surveys assessed depressive symptoms with the Symptom Checklist-90, mental wellbeing with the Short Warwick Edinburgh Mental Wellbeing Scale, and the frequency of cigarette smoking, e-cigarette use, and alcohol intoxication. Demographic data were collected, which included language spoken at home although not ethnicity data. We used mixed effects models to study the effect of gender, age, and survey year on trends in mental health outcomes. FINDINGS: 59 701 survey responses were included; response rates ranged from 63% to 86%. An increase in depressive symptoms (ß 0·57, 95% CI 0·53 to 0·60) and worsened mental wellbeing (ß -0·46, 95% CI -0·49 to -0·42) were observed across all age groups during the pandemic compared with same-aged peers before COVID-19. These outcomes were significantly worse in adolescent girls compared with boys (ß 4·16, 95% CI 4·05 to 4·28, and ß -1·13, 95% CI -1·23 to -1·03, respectively). Cigarette smoking (OR 2·61, 95% CI 2·59 to 2·66), e-cigarette use (OR 2·61, 95% CI 2·59 to 2·64), and alcohol intoxication (OR 2·59, 95% CI 2·56 to 2·64) declined among 15-18-year-olds during COVID-19, with no similar gender differences. INTERPRETATION: Our results suggest that COVID-19 has significantly impaired adolescent mental health. However, the decrease observed in substance use during the pandemic might be an unintended benefit of isolation, and might serve as a protective factor against future substance use disorders and dependence. Population-level prevention efforts, especially for girls, are warranted. FUNDING: Icelandic Research Fund. TRANSLATION: For the Icelandic translation of the abstract see Supplementary Materials section.

The Impact of Sexual Abuse, Family Violence/Conflict, Spirituality, and Religion on Anger and Depressed Mood Among Adolescents.

Stressful life experiences, such as sexual abuse and family violence/conflict, relate to an increased risk of mental health problems. Religion and spirituality may prevent this negative impact, but religion and spirituality are lower among survivors of stressful life experiences. To explore this effect, we examined the relationship between childhood sexual abuse and family violence/conflict on anger and depressed mood. Survey data were collected from a large population-based sample of Icelandic adolescents (N = 7,365) on their stressful life experiences, religion, spirituality, and mental health. Survivors of stressful life experiences (sexual abuse or family violence/conflict) were significantly lower on religion and spirituality than others. A hierarchical linear regression showed that stressful life experiences contributed uniquely to higher levels of anger and depressed mood. Spirituality was associated with decreased anger and depressed mood. The religion of parents and peers was also associated with decreased anger. Religious participation, on the contrary, did not have a relationship with mental health outcomes. In addition, the negative association between spirituality and anger was stronger among survivors of sexual abuse than nonabused individuals. These results confirm previous research, indicating that survivors of stressful life experiences may experience less religion and spirituality. The results also extend existing knowledge by showing that spirituality may be even more beneficial among sexual abuse survivors, as a protective factor against anger. These findings can help in the minimization of the negative mental health impact of stressful life experiences.

Dyadic Reports Using the Parental Support after Child Sexual Abuse Measure: Psychometrics and Associations with Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Symptoms.

This study assessed the psychometric properties of a new measure, the Parental Support after Child Sexual Abuse (PSCSA) survey, and tested the association between parents' and children's parental support reports and children's post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms. A total of 99 Icelandic children (86.5% girls, 6-18 years old, M = 13.9 years) starting therapy for child sexual abuse (CSA) and 98 non-offending parents (90.6% mothers, 23-58 years old, M = 41.2 years) participated in the study. Participants completed questionnaires on parental support (PSCSA) and children's PTSD symptom severity (University of California at Los Angeles Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Reaction Index for the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fourth edition). A total of 18 items were considered for the PSCSA parent version and nine for the PSCSA child version. Five reliable factors emerged for the parent version (Emotional support, Instrumental support, Self-blame, Child blame and Disbelief) using 16 items and one factor (combined Emotional and instrumental support) emerged for the child's version using eight items. On average, ratings for both Emotional and Instrumental support were higher for parents than their children. Emotional support reported by both parents and children was negatively associated with PTSD symptom severity. The PSCSA survey is a promising dyadic measure for future research and clinical use in children's advocacy centres.

Trends in substance use and primary prevention variables among adolescents in Lithuania, 2006-19.

BACKGROUND: Since the implementation of the Icelandic Model for Primary Prevention of Substance Use in Iceland (IPM), substance use has decreased steadily among 14-16-year-old adolescents and primary prevention factors have improved. Although the IPM is being implemented in several other regions around the world, information documenting its effectiveness in other country contexts is lacking. This study assessed trends in substance use and primary prevention variables in three cities in Lithuania following the implementation of the IPM. METHODS: Data collected from repeated, comparative cross-sectional self-report surveys conducted among a total of 30 572 10th graders in the cities of Kaunas, Klaipeda and Vilnius, Lithuania, from 2006 to 2019, were analyzed. Cochran-Armitage test for linear trend and analysis of variance for linear trend was used to assess time-trends in prevalence of substance use and mean levels of primary prevention variables over time. RESULTS: Following the implementation of IPM rates of cigarette smoking and the use of alcohol, cannabis and amphetamine has decreased among 10th graders in Lithuania's three largest cities and simultaneously preventive variables targeted have improved. Similar to Iceland, primary prevention variables were related to substance use in the expected direction, with the exception of organized sports participation, which was not associated with less likelihood of alcohol, cannabis and amphetamine use. CONCLUSION: Trends in substance use and primary prevention variables following the implementation of the IPM are similar in the three cities in Lithuania as in Iceland. Further research is needed to better understand the mechanisms underlying these trends.

A multi-level developmental approach towards understanding adolescent mental health and behaviour: rationale, design and methods of the LIFECOURSE study in Iceland.

PURPOSE: Identifying and understanding modifiable risk and protective factors that can inform early detection and intervention to prevent adolescent emotional problems and harmful behaviours is among the most pressing modern-day public health challenges. This paper describes the rationale, objectives, methods, and anticipated outcomes of the LIFECOURSE study, a multi-level, bio-psychosocial prospective study designed to advance our understanding of factors that shape adolescent mental health and behaviour. METHODS: Conducted by the Icelandic Centre for Social Research and Analysis at Reykjavik University, LIFECOURSE is a longitudinal population-based developmental study of Icelandic adolescents born in 2004. The study utilizes a comprehensive multi-informant assessment of individual, societal and biological factors measured across the lifespan. Data assembly and collection were conducted from 2016-2020 and utilize both retrospective and prospective data sources: (a) retrospective registry data assembled from seven national databases, (b) prospectively collected social surveys and (c) biomarker samples. RESULTS: Of the 3914 eligible adolescents, 60.8% (n = 2378) provided informed parental consent and student assent to participate in the study, with approximately half of the participants being female (n = 1175, 49.4%) and the majority being born in the capital area (n = 1455; 61.2%). The coverage of available data from the national databases and participation in the social surveys ranged from 81.7 to 100%. CONCLUSIONS: Major gaps remain in our knowledge of how individual, societal and biological factors across the lifespan-from early life to adolescence-interact and shape the risk for emotional problems and harmful behaviours during adolescence. The LIFECOURSE study was designed to address this knowledge gap.

Females with ADHD: An expert consensus statement taking a lifespan approach providing guidance for the identification and treatment of attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder in girls and women.

BACKGROUND: There is evidence to suggest that the broad discrepancy in the ratio of males to females with diagnosed ADHD is due, at least in part, to lack of recognition and/or referral bias in females. Studies suggest that females with ADHD present with differences in their profile of symptoms, comorbidity and associated functioning compared with males. This consensus aims to provide a better understanding of females with ADHD in order to improve recognition and referral. Comprehensive assessment and appropriate treatment is hoped to enhance longer-term clinical outcomes and patient wellbeing for females with ADHD. METHODS: The United Kingdom ADHD Partnership hosted a meeting of experts to discuss symptom presentation, triggers for referral, assessment, treatment and multi-agency liaison for females with ADHD across the lifespan. RESULTS: A consensus was reached offering practical guidance to support medical and mental health practitioners working with females with ADHD. The potential challenges of working with this patient group were identified, as well as specific barriers that may hinder recognition. These included symptomatic differences, gender biases, comorbidities and the compensatory strategies that may mask or overshadow underlying symptoms of ADHD. Furthermore, we determined the broader needs of these patients and considered how multi-agency liaison may provide the support to meet them. CONCLUSIONS: This practical approach based upon expert consensus will inform effective identification, treatment and support of girls and women with ADHD. It is important to move away from the prevalent perspective that ADHD is a behavioural disorder and attend to the more subtle and/or internalised presentation that is common in females. It is essential to adopt a lifespan model of care to support the complex transitions experienced by females that occur in parallel to change in clinical presentation and social circumstances. Treatment with pharmacological and psychological interventions is expected to have a positive impact leading to increased productivity, decreased resource utilization and most importantly, improved long-term outcomes for girls and women.

Active and Passive Social Media Use and Symptoms of Anxiety and Depressed Mood Among Icelandic Adolescents.

Adolescent use of social media platforms such as Facebook, Instagram, and Snapchat has increased dramatically over the last decade and now pervades their everyday social lives. Active and passive social media use may impact emotional health differently, but little is known about whether and to what extent either type of social media use influences emotional distress among young people. We analyzed population survey data collected from Icelandic adolescents (N = 10,563) to document the prevalence of social media use and investigate the relationship of both active and passive social media use with self-reported symptoms of anxiety and depressed mood. A hierarchical linear regression model revealed that passive social media use was related to greater symptoms of anxiety and depressed mood among adolescents and active social media use was related to decreased symptoms of anxiety and depressed mood, even after controlling for time spent on social media. When adding known risk and protective factors, self-esteem, offline peer support, poor body image, and social comparison to the model, active use was not related to emotional distress; however, passive use was still related to adolescent symptoms of anxiety and depressed mood. The effect of social media on emotional distress differed by gender as time spent on social media had a stronger relationship with emotional distress among girls. In addition, passive use was more strongly related to symptoms of depressed mood among girls. Future research should include risk and protective factors as mediators of different types of social media use and adolescent emotional distress.

An epidemiological study of ADHD and conduct disorder: does family conflict moderate the association?

PURPOSE: To examine the role of family conflict in the relationship between attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and conduct disorder (CD). METHODS: A cross-sectional national population survey was carried out among 10,838 14-16 year old students in all secondary schools in Iceland. Three latent measures, financial status, ADHD and CD, and one observed measure, family structure, were included in the study. A structural equation model was used to evaluate direct effects between ADHD and CD for four different groups; females and males, experiencing family conflict and those not experiencing family conflict. RESULTS: ADHD was significantly and positively associated with CD for all groups. When controlling for financial status and family structure it was found that ADHD was positively and significantly associated with CD for adolescent females and males not experiencing family conflict as well as for those experiencing family conflict. The link between ADHD and CD was significantly stronger for those adolescents who had experienced family conflict compared to those who had not experienced family conflict. These results suggest that family conflict moderates the association between ADHD and CD for both girls and boys. CONCLUSIONS: The results of this study indicate that family environment and ADHD symptoms are important when predicting CD among adolescent youth. Most notably, family conflict exacerbates the effects of ADHD symptoms on CD among both females and males.

A national epidemiological study investigating risk factors for police interrogation and false confession among juveniles and young persons.

PURPOSE: The principal aims of this study are to identify risk factors associated with police arrest and false confessions and to investigate whether the severity of the ADHD condition/symptoms increases the risk. METHODS: 22,226 young persons in Iceland anonymously completed self-report questionnaires screening for conduct disorder and ADHD. In addition, they stated whether they had a diagnosis of ADHD and had received ADHD medication, and their history of offending, police interrogation and false confession. Participants were stratified into two age groups, 14-16 and 17-24 years. RESULTS: The older group was significantly more likely to have been interrogated by the police but the younger group were much more vulnerable to false confession during interrogation. Males were more likely to be at risk for both than females. The severity of the ADHD condition increased the risk of both interrogation and false confession. Negative binomial regressions showed that age, gender, conduct disorder, offending, and ADHD symptoms were all significant predictors of both interrogations and number of false confessions. Conduct disorder was the single best predictor of police interrogation, but the findings were more mixed regarding false confessions. Young people presenting with a combination of severe ADHD and comorbid conduct disorder had the worst outcome for both interrogation and false confessions. CONCLUSIONS: The findings endorse the need for support of persons with ADHD to be put in place to ensure fair due process and to prevent miscarriages of justice.

Gender differences in co-occurrence of depressive and anger symptoms among adolescents in five Nordic countries.

AIMS: The aim of this study was to carry out a comparative examination on gender differences in depressive and anger symptoms and their co-occurrence, using comparative self-report survey data from 16-19-year-old students in five Nordic countries. METHODS: In total, 8038 adolescents participated in the study, 4183 females (52%) and 3855 males (48%) with an average age of 17.1 years. Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) was used to test for gender differences in symptoms for the sample as a whole and also for each country. Furthermore, partial bivariate correlation was carried out and followed up by ANCOVA to test for gender differences in the co-occurrence of depressive and anger symptoms in the five countries. RESULTS: The results indicated that, on average, adolescent females reported higher levels of depressive symptoms than males in all the countries under study and higher levels of anger symptoms in four out of five countries. The relationship between depressive and anger symptoms turned out to be stronger for females than males for all the countries under study, demonstrating higher co-occurrence of depressive and anger symptoms on average among females than males. CONCLUSIONS: The findings underline the need for attending to both depressive and anger symptoms among adolescents when designing mental health interventions and treatments as co-occurrence of both types of symptoms is common, particularly among females.

Changes in body image and dieting among 16-19-year-old Icelandic students from 2000 to 2010.

The aim of the study was to evaluate trends in body image and dieting among 16-19-year-old students in Iceland from 2000 to 2010. Data from four cross-sectional surveys conducted among Icelandic students in 26 junior colleges using four time points were compared to examine changes in body image and dieting. In total, 33,801 students with the mean age of 17.3 years participated. Body image became significantly more positive over the 10-year period for both genders. At all time points, females reported more negative body image than males and a higher proportion of dieters were females than males. There was a decrease in the frequency of dieting among females over time but an increase among males, resulting in a narrower gender gap in dieting. Further examination of these trends in body image and dieting may reveal differences in causal mechanisms behind negative body image and dieting between the genders.

Suicidal ideations and attempts among adolescents subjected to childhood sexual abuse and family conflict/violence: the mediating role of anger and depressed mood.

Based on a sample of 9085 16- to 19-year-old students attending all high schools in Iceland in 2004, the current study examines depressed mood and anger as potential mediators between family conflict/violence and sexual abuse, on the one hand, and suicidal ideations and suicide attempts on the other. Agnew's general strain theory provides the theoretical framework for the study. Structural equation modelling (SEM) was conducted allowing explicit modelling of both direct and mediating effects using observed and latent variables. The findings showed that both depressed mood and anger mediated the relationship between family conflict/violence and sexual abuse and suicidal attempts. However, when testing the mediating pathways between sexual abuse and family conflict/violence and suicidal ideations, only depressed mood but not anger turned out to be a significant mediator. The authors discuss how these finding may inform and facilitate the design and development of interventions to reduce the likelihood of suicide attempts among young people.

Gender difference in wellbeing during school lessons among 10-12-year-old children: the importance of school subjects and student-teacher relationships.

AIMS: The aim of the study was to examine gender difference in self-reported wellbeing during school lessons among Icelandic 10-12-year-old boys and girls, in grades 5-7 in elementary schools. Also, to examine whether factors related to attitudes towards school subjects, student-teacher relationships and student-peer relationships mediated the associations between gender and wellbeing during school lessons. METHODS: A cross-sectional anonymous survey was conducted among 88% (in total 11,387 participants) of all registered students aged 10-12 attending grades 5-7 in Iceland. Multivariate logistic regression was used to test main, mediation, and interaction effects. RESULTS: Boys reported significantly less wellbeing during school lessons than girls. Not finding the subjects taught at school fun fully mediated the relationship between gender and self-reported wellbeing during school lessons. Furthermore, when not considering other school-related factors, finding the subjects at school to hard, not liking the teachers, not being praised by teachers, and being bullied in recess partially mediated the relationship between gender and self-reported wellbeing during school lessons. CONCLUSIONS: The results suggest that to improve boy's wellbeing during school lessons, making school subject more appealing to boys is of importance. Furthermore, fostering teacher-student relationships and decreasing bullying of boys in recess should be emphasised.