Automobile injury trends in the contemporary fleet: Belted occupants in frontal collisions.

Objective: As vehicle safety technologies and evaluation procedures advance, it is pertinent to periodically evaluate injury trends to identify continuing and emerging priorities for intervention. This study examined detailed injury distributions and injury risk trends in belted occupants in frontal automobile collisions (10 o'clock to 2 o'clock) using NASS-CDS (1998-2015). Methods: Injury distributions were examined by occupant age and vehicle model year (stratified at pre- and post-2009). Logistic regression models were developed to examine the effects of various factors on injury risk (by body region), controlling for delta-V, sex, age, height, body mass index (BMI), vehicle model year (again stratified at 2009). Results: Among other observations, these analyses indicate that newer model year vehicles (model year [MY] 2009 and later) carry less risk of Abbreviated Injury Scale (AIS) 2+ and AIS 3+ injury compared to older model year vehicles, with odds ratios of 0.69 (AIS 2+) and 0.45 (AIS 3+). The largest reductions in risk between newer model year vehicles and older model year vehicles occur in the lower extremities and in the risk of skull fracture. There is no statistically significant change in risk of AIS 3+ rib fracture or sternum injury between model year categories. Females are at greater risk of AIS 2+ and AIS 3+ injury compared to males, with increased risk across most injury types. Conclusions: For belted occupants in frontal collisions, substantial reductions in injury risk have been realized in many body regions in recent years. Risk reduction in the thorax has lagged other body regions, resulting in increasing prevalence among skeletal injuries in newer model year vehicles (especially in the elderly). Injuries also remain common in the arm and hand/wrist for all age ranges studied. These results provide insight into where advances in the field have made gains in occupant protection and what injury types remain to be addressed.

Pelvic restraint cushion sled test evaluation of pelvic forward motion.

OBJECTIVE: This study was designed to evaluate the performance of a pelvic restraint cushion (PRC), a submarining countermeasure that deploys under the thighs when a crash is detected in order to block the forward motion of the pelvis. METHODS: Sled tests approximating low- and high-speed frontal impacts were conducted with 4 female postmortem human subjects (PMHS) restrained by a lap and shoulder belt in the right front passenger seat. The subjects were tested with and without a PRC. RESULTS: The PRC is effective in reducing forward motion of the PMHS pelvis and reduces the risk of injury due to lap belt loading in a high-speed frontal crash. CONCLUSIONS: Although small sample size limits the utility of the study's findings, the results suggest that the PRC can limit pelvic forward motion and that pelvic injury due to PRC deployment is not likely.

Development of thoracic injury risk functions for the THOR ATD.

The Test Device for Human Occupant Restraint (THOR) 50th percentile male anthropomorphic test device (ATD) aims to improve the ability to predict the risk of chest injury to restrained automobile occupants by measuring dynamic chest deflection at multiple locations. This research aimed to describe the methods for developing a thoracic injury risk function (IRF) using the multi-point chest deflection metrics from the 50th percentile male THOR Metric ATD with the SD-3 shoulder and associating to post-mortem human subjects (PMHS) outcomes that were matched on identical frontal and frontal-oblique impact sled testing conditions. Several deflection metrics were assessed as potential predictor variables for AIS 3+ injury risk, including a combined metric, called PC Score, which was generated from a principal component analysis. A parametric survival analysis (specifically, accelerated failure time (AFT) with Weibull distribution) was assessed in the development of the IRF. Model fit was assessed using various modeling diagnostics, including the area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC). Models based on resultant deflection consistently exhibited improved fit compared to models based on x-axis deflection or chord deflection. Risk functions for the THOR PC Score and Cmax (maximum resultant deflection) were qualitatively equivalent, producing AUCs of 0.857 and 0.861, respectively. Adjusting for the potential confounding effects of age, AFT survival models with Cmax or PC Score as the primary deflection metric resulted in the THOR injury risk models with the best combination of biomechanical appropriateness, potential utility and model fit, and may be recommended as injury predictors.

Small female rib cage fracture in frontal sled tests.

OBJECTIVES: The 2 objectives of this study are to (1) examine the rib and sternal fractures sustained by small stature elderly females in simulated frontal crashes and (2) determine how the findings are characterized by prior knowledge and field data. METHODS: A test series was conducted to evaluate the response of 5 elderly (average age 76 years) female postmortem human subjects (PMHS), similar in mass and size to a 5th percentile female, in 30 km/h frontal sled tests. The subjects were restrained on a rigid planar seat by bilateral rigid knee bolsters, pelvic blocks, and a custom force-limited 3-point shoulder and lap belt. Posttest subject injury assessment included identifying rib cage fractures by means of a radiologist read of a posttest computed tomography (CT) and an autopsy. The data from a motion capture camera system were processed to provide chest deflection, defined as the movement of the sternum relative to the spine at the level of T8. A complementary field data investigation involved querying the NASS-CDS database over the years 1997-2012. The targeted cases involved belted front seat small female passenger vehicle occupants over 40 years old who were injured in 25 to 35 km/h delta-V frontal crashes (11 to 1 o'clock). RESULTS: Peak upper shoulder belt tension averaged 1,970 N (SD = 140 N) in the sled tests. For all subjects, the peak x-axis deflection was recorded at the sternum with an average of -44.5 mm or 25% of chest depth. The thoracic injury severity based on the number and distribution of rib fractures yielded 4 subjects coded as Abbreviated Injury Scale (AIS) 3 (serious) and one as AIS 5 (critical). The NASS-CDS field data investigation of small females identified 205 occupants who met the search criteria. Rib fractures were reported for 2.7% of the female occupants. CONCLUSIONS: The small elderly test subjects sustained a higher number of rib cage fractures than expected in what was intended to be a minimally injurious frontal crash test condition. Neither field studies nor prior laboratory frontal sled tests conducted with 50th percentile male PMHS predicted the injury severity observed. Although this was a limited study, the results justify further exploration of the risk of rib cage injury for small elderly female occupants.

Side impact PMHS thoracic response with large-volume air bag.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study is to assess the response of postmortem human subjects (PMHS) to a large-volume side air bag in a fully instrumented and well-controlled side impact test condition. METHODS: Three adult male PMHS were subjected to right-side pure lateral impacts. Each stationary seated subject was struck at 4.3 ± 0.1 m/s by a rigid wall installed on a 1700-kg rail-mounted sled. Each subject was held stationary by a system of tethers until immediately prior to being impacted by the moving wall. A large side air bag was mounted to the wall and deployed so that it was fully inflated at the time it contacted the subject's right side. The load wall consisted of an adjustable matrix of 15 individual plates, each supported by a 5-axis load cell that recorded the interaction between the subject and impacting wall. Two-dimensional (external) torso deformation was provided by a chest band that encircled the torso at the level of the sixth rib laterally. Triaxial acceleration was measured at the head, spine, and sacrum via 3 orthogonal accelerometers mounted to the same bone-mounted hardware that held the marker clusters used for kinematic analysis. RESULTS: Peak pelvic load normal to the wall averaged 6.8 kN, which was over 5 times that recorded for the shoulder (1.3 kN) and the thorax (1.2 kN). Lateral chest deflection ranged from 9 to 21 mm. Two of the 3 subjects sustained 2 and 9 fractures, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Two of the 3 PMHS sustained rib fractures despite low levels of thorax deflection. We attribute this finding to individual variability in subject injury tolerance. Other response parameters exhibited lower levels of variability and characterize PMHS response to a potentially beneficial side impact countermeasure. Supplemental materials are available for this article. Go to the publisher's online edition of Traffic Injury Prevention to view the supplemental file.

Assessment of a head support system to prevent pediatric out-of-position: an observational study.

Head injuries are the most common severe injuries sustained by pediatric occupants in road traffic crashes. Preventing children from adopting positions that can result in an increased injury risk due to unfavorable interactions with the restraints is fundamental. The objective of this paper was to assess the effect of a head support system (SS) on the lateral position of the head, the vertical position of the sternum and the shoulder belt fit. Thirty pediatric rear-seat passengers were exposed to two 75-minute trials. Volunteers were restrained by a three-point belt and, if needed, used the appropriate child restraint system for their anthropometry (high-back booster, low-back booster, no booster). A case crossover study was designed in which the volunteers used the head support system (SS) during one of the trials, acting as their own controls (No SS) in the other. Compared to the control group, the head support reduced significantly the 90(th) percentile value of the absolute value of the relative lateral motion of the head, regardless of the restraint used. The system also reduced the maximum downward position of the sternal notch within the low-back booster group. As for the belt fit, the use of the head support improved significantly the position of the shoulder belt on the occupant in the low-back booster and in the no booster groups.

Occupant kinematics and shoulder belt retention in far-side lateral and oblique collisions: a parametric study.

In far-side impacts, head contact with interior components is a key injury mechanism. Restraint characteristics have a pronounced influence on head motion and injury risk. This study performed a parametric examination of restraint, positioning, and collision factors affecting shoulder belt retention and occupant kinematics in far-side lateral and oblique sled tests with post mortem human subjects (PMHS). Seven PMHS were subjected to repeated tests varying the D-ring position, arm position, pelvis restraint, pre-tensioning, and impact severity. Each PMHS was subjected to four low-severity tests (6.6 g sled acceleration pulse) in which the restraint or position parameters were varied and then a single higher-severity test (14 g) with a chosen restraint configuration (total of 36 tests). Three PMHS were tested in a purely lateral (90° from frontal) impact direction; 4 were tested in an oblique impact (60° from frontal). All subjects were restrained by a 3-point seatbelt. Occupant motion was tracked with a 3D optoelectric high speed motion capture system. For all restraint configurations, the 60° oblique impact angle was associated with greater lateral head excursion than the 90° impact angle. This unexpected result reflects the increased axial rotation of the torso in the oblique impacts, which allowed the shoulder to displace more relative to the shoulder belt and thus the head to displace more relative to the sled buck. Restraint engagement of the torso and shoulder was actually greater in the purely lateral impacts than in the oblique impacts. Pretensioning significantly reduced lateral head excursion (175 mm average in the low-severity tests across all restraint configurations).

Child posture and shoulder belt fit during extended night-time traveling: an in-transit observational study.

Understanding pediatric occupant postures can help researchers indentify injury risk factors, and provide information for prospective injury prediction. This study sought to observe lateral head positions and shoulder belt fit among older child automobile occupants during a scenario likely to result in sleeping - extended travel during the night. An observational, volunteer, in-transit study was performed with 30 pediatric rear-seat passengers, ages 7 to 14. Each was restrained by a three-point seatbelt and was driven for seventy-five minutes at night. Ten subjects used a high-back booster seat, ten used a low-back booster seat, and ten used none (based on the subject height and weight). The subjects were recorded with a low-light video camera, and one frame was analyzed per each minute of video. The high-back booster group exhibited a statistically significant (p<0.05) decrease in the mean frequency of poor shoulder belt fit compared to the no-booster and low-back booster groups. The high-back booster group also exhibited statistically significant decreases in the 90(th) percentile of the absolute value of the relative lateral motion of the head. The low-back booster group did not result in statistically significant decreases in poor shoulder belt fit or lateral head motion compared to the no-booster group. These results are consistent with the presence of large lateral supports of the high-back booster which provided support to the head while sleeping, reducing voluntary lateral occupant motion and improving shoulder belt fit. Future work includes examining lap belt fit in-transit, and examining the effects of these observations on predicted injury risk.

Failure of the lumbar pedicles under bending loading - biomed 2010.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the magnitude of bending moment that results in fracture of the pedicles when lumbar vertebrae are loaded in four-point bending. Nine human second lumbar vertebrae (L2) were harvested from donors aged 59-75 years. The specimens were potted and then subjected to quasi-static sagittal-plane four-point bending, which allowed for a constant bending moment applied over a 3.8 cm span centered on the vertebral pedicles until fracture. The failure bending moment calculated for the pedicles varied widely (30.7 +/- 12.3 Nm) and was poorly correlated with subject age (y = -0.91x + 91.5, R(2) = -0.27). With increasing displacement, the bending moment applied to the pedicles increased, first linearly, followed by a non-linear portion, prior to specimen fracture. In general, the specimens failed at the interface of the pedicles and vertebral bodies, but failures were observed elsewhere as well. These data provide sufficient response and boundary condition information for finite element modeling and model validation.

Characterization of the transverse and spinous vertebral processes: fracture forces under quasi-static and dynamic loading - biomed 2010.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the response and failure properties of the transverse and spinous vertebral processes under cantilever bending. Twelve human third lumbar vertebrae (L3) were harvested from donors aged 56-79 years, and the processes were loaded in either dynamic (1000 mm/s) or quasi-static (1 mm/s) cantilever bending. All of the spinous processes were loaded dynamically, and transverse process loading was alternated between dynamic and quasi-static and between right and left. Peak forces measured for the transverse processes were 252 +/- 77 N and 234 +/- 50 N in the dynamic and quasi-static tests, respectively, which corresponded to lack of rate sensitivity in the transverse process peak force for the range of loading rates considered (p=0.6). Peak forces measured for the spinous processes were 1179.6 +/- 587.1 N, and both subject mass (p=0.038) and subject age (p=0.006) were found to be significant predictors of peak force.

Endplate indentation of the fourth lumbar vertebra - biomed 2010.

This study presents the results of indentation tests on the superior vertebral endplate of the 4th lumbar vertebra (L4) of eleven male cadaveric subjects (65 +/- 7 years). Three locations on the superior endplate surface were loaded with a 7.9 mm spherical indentor at either a low (1 mm/s) or high (1000 mm/s) rate. Anterior midline and posterior right and left indentation locations were chosen to prevent local deformations and fractures from influencing the results of subsequent and preceding tests. Peak forces were higher in the dynamic tests (498 +/- 261 N) than in the quasi-static tests (451 +/- 256 N) on the posterior side, although the difference was not significant (p = 0.139). However, the peak forces in the anterior tests (304 +/-166 N) were significantly lower (p =0.0157) than in the posterior tests with the same loading rate. The variation in failure forces in the current study correlates with the variation in thickness of endplate cortical bone (between specimens and between anterior and posterior locations on the same specimen) as measured from small field of view computed tomography scans.