Use of COVID-19 Convalescent Plasma for Treatment of Symptomatic SARS-CoV-2 Infection at a Children's Hospital: A Contribution to a Still Inadequate Body of Evidence.

Data on COVID-19 convalescent plasma (CCP) safety and efficacy in children and young adults are limited. This single-center prospective, open-label trial evaluates CCP safety, neutralizing antibody kinetics, and outcomes in children and young adults with moderate/severe COVID-19 (April 2020-March 2021). A total of 46 subjects received CCP; 43 were included in the safety analysis (SAS); 7.0% < 2 years old, 2.3% 2-<6, 27.9% 6-<12, 39.5% 12-<19, and 23.3% > 19 years old; 28 were included in the antibody kinetic analysis (AbKS); 10.7% < 2 years old, 10.7% 6-<12, 53.8% 12-<19, and 25.0% > 19 years old. No adverse events occurred. The median COVID-19 severity score improved (5.0 pre-CCP to 1.0 by day 7; p < 0.001). A rapid increase in the median percentage of inhibition was observed in AbKS (22.5% (13.0%, 41.5%) pre-infusion to 52% (23.7%, 72%) 24 h post-infusion); a similar increase was observed in nine immune-competent subjects (28% (23%, 35%) to 63% (53%, 72%)). The inhibition percentage increased until day 7 and persisted at 21 and 90 days. CCP is well tolerated in children and young adults, providing rapid and robust increased antibodies. CCP should remain a therapeutic option for this population for whom vaccines are not fully available and given that the safety and efficacy of existing monoclonal antibodies and antiviral agents have not been established.

Safety and Efficacy of Ceftolozane/Tazobactam Versus Meropenem in Neonates and Children With Complicated Urinary Tract Infection, Including Pyelonephritis: A Phase 2, Randomized Clinical Trial.

BACKGROUND: Ceftolozane/tazobactam, a cephalosporin-ß-lactamase inhibitor combination, active against multidrug-resistant Gram-negative pathogens, is approved for treatment of adults with complicated urinary tract infections (cUTI). Safety and efficacy of ceftolozane/tazobactam in pediatric participants with cUTI, including pyelonephritis, were assessed. METHODS: This phase 2 study (NCT03230838) compared ceftolozane/tazobactam with meropenem for treatment of cUTI in participants from birth to <18 years of age. The primary objective was safety and tolerability. Key secondary end points included clinical cure and per-participant microbiologic response rates at end of treatment (EOT) and test of cure (TOC) visits. RESULTS: The microbiologic modified intent-to-treat (mMITT) population included 95 participants (ceftolozane/tazobactam, n = 71; meropenem, n = 24). The most common diagnosis and pathogen were pyelonephritis (ceftolozane/tazobactam, 84.5%; meropenem, 79.2%) and Escherichia coli (ceftolozane/tazobactam, 74.6%; meropenem, 87.5%); 5.7% (ceftolozane/tazobactam) and 4.8% (meropenem) of E. coli isolates were extended-spectrum ß-lactamase-producers. Rates of adverse events were similar between treatment groups (any: ceftolozane/tazobactam, 59.0% vs. meropenem, 60.6%; drug-related: ceftolozane/tazobactam, 14.0% vs. meropenem, 15.2%; serious: ceftolozane/tazobactam, 3.0% vs. meropenem, 6.1%). Rates of clinical cure for ceftolozane/tazobactam and meropenem at EOT were 94.4% and 100% and at TOC were 88.7% and 95.8%, respectively. Rates of microbiologic eradication for ceftolozane/tazobactam and meropenem at EOT were 93.0% and 95.8%, and at TOC were 84.5% and 87.5%, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Ceftolozane/tazobactam had a favorable safety profile in pediatric participants with cUTI; rates of clinical cure and microbiologic eradication were high and similar to meropenem. Ceftolozane/tazobactam is a safe and effective new treatment option for children with cUTI, especially due to antibacterial-resistant Gram-negative pathogens.

Infliximab versus second intravenous immunoglobulin for treatment of resistant Kawasaki disease in the USA (KIDCARE): a randomised, multicentre comparative effectiveness trial.

BACKGROUND: Although intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG) is effective therapy for Kawasaki disease, 10-20% of patients have recrudescent fever as a sign of persistent inflammation and require additional treatment. We aimed to compare infliximab with a second infusion of IVIG for treatment of resistant Kawasaki disease. METHODS: In this multicentre comparative effectiveness trial, patients (aged 4 weeks to 17 years) with IVIG resistant Kawasaki disease and fever at least 36 h after completion of their first IVIG infusion were recruited from 30 hospitals across the USA. Patients were randomly assigned (1:1) to second IVIG (2 g/kg over 8-12 h) or intravenous infliximab (10 mg/kg over 2 h without premedication), by using a randomly permuted block randomisation design with block size of two or four. Patients with fever 24 h to 7 days following completion of first study treatment crossed over to receive the other study treatment. The primary outcome measure was resolution of fever at 24 h after initiation of study treatment with no recurrence of fever attributed to Kawasaki disease within 7 days post-discharge. Secondary outcome measures included duration of fever from enrolment, duration of hospitalisation after randomisation, and changes in markers of inflammation and coronary artery Z score. Efficacy was analysed in participants who received treatment and had available outcome values. Safety was analysed in all randomised patients who did not withdraw consent. This clinical trial is registered with ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT03065244. FINDINGS: Between March 1, 2017, and Aug 31, 2020, 105 patients were randomly assigned to treatment and 103 were included in the intention-to-treat population (54 in the infliximab group, 49 in the second IVIG group). Two patients randomised to infliximab did not receive allocated treatment. The primary outcome was met by 40 (77%) of 52 patients in the infliximab group and 25 (51%) of 49 patients in the second IVIG infusion group (odds ratio 0·31, 95% CI 0·13-0·73, p=0·0076). 31 patients with fever beyond 24 h received crossover treatment: nine (17%) in the infliximab group received second IVIG and 22 (45%) in second IVIG group received infliximab (p=0·0024). Three patients randomly assigned to infliximab and two to second IVIG with fever beyond 24h did not receive crossover treatment. Mean fever days from enrolment was 1·5 (SD 1·4) for the infliximab group and 2·5 (2·5) for the second IVIG group (p=0·014). Mean hospital stay was 3·2 days (2·1) for the infliximab group and 4·5 days (2·5) for the second IVIG group (p<0·001). There was no difference between treatment groups for markers of inflammation or coronary artery outcome. 24 (44%) of 54 patients in the infliximab group and 33 (67%) of 49 in the second IVIG group had at least one adverse event. A drop in haemoglobin concentration of at least 2g/dL was seen in 19 (33%) of 58 patients who received IVIG as either their first or second study treatment (three of whom required transfusion) and in three (7%) of 43 who received only infliximab (none required transfusion; p=0·0028). Haemolytic anaemia was the only serious adverse events deemed definitely or probably related to study treatment, and was reported in nine (15%) of 58 patients who received IVIG as either their first or second study treatment and none who received infliximab only. INTERPRETATION: Infliximab is a safe, well tolerated, and effective treatment for patients with IVIG resistant Kawasaki disease, and results in shorter duration of fever, reduced need for additional therapy, less severe anaemia, and shorter hospitalisation compared with second IVIG infusion. FUNDING: Patient Centered Outcomes Research Institute.

Invasive Mycobacterium abscessus Outbreak at a Pediatric Dental Clinic.

BACKGROUND: Mycobacterium species, specifically M. abscessus and M. chelonae (MABs), are known to contaminate water systems and are uncommon causes of health care-associated infection, but morbidity can be significant and treatment complex. METHODS: Odontogenic MAB infections occurred in patients following pulpotomy procedures at dental clinic A from 1 January to 6 September 2016. We identified confirmed and probable cases using culture data, imaging, pathology results, and surgical findings. Epidemiologic and clinical data including demographics, symptoms, laboratory findings, treatment regimens, and outcomes were extracted. RESULTS: Of 1082 at-risk patients, 71 case patients (22 confirmed; 49 probable) were identified. Median age was 6 years. Median symptom onset was 85 days postpulpotomy. Pain and/or swelling on admission occurred in 79%. On imaging, 49 of 70 had abnormalities of the mandible or maxilla, 13 of 70 had lymphadenopathy, and 19 of 68 had pulmonary nodules. Seventy were hospitalized (average of 8.5 days). Intravenous antibiotics were administered to 32 cases for a median length of 137 days. Clofazimine was administered to 29 patients as part of their multidrug regimen. Antibiotic treatment was associated with many adverse effects. Treated children showed evidence of jaw healing with resolved/improving pulmonary nodules at 1-year follow-up. CONCLUSIONS: This is the largest outbreak of invasive MAB infections associated with a pediatric dental practice. While infections were indolent, patients suffered medical and surgical consequences of treatment, including permanent tooth loss. Identification of this outbreak led to a change in water standards for pediatric dental procedures in California. Enhanced national dental water quality standards are needed to prevent future outbreaks.

Safety and Antibody Kinetics of COVID-19 Convalescent Plasma for the Treatment of Moderate to Severe Cases of SARS-CoV-2 Infection in Pediatric Patients.

BACKGROUND: Therapies against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) and its life-threatening respiratory infection coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) have been evaluated, including COVID-19 convalescent plasma (CCP). Multiple large reports of CCP treatment in adults exist. Pediatric data on CCP safety and efficacy are limited. METHODS: Single-center prospective, open-label trial looking at safety, antibody kinetics and outcomes of CCP (10 mL/kg, max 1 unit) treatment for COVID-19 in hospitalized pediatric patients with moderate to severe disease or at high-risk for serious illness. RESULTS: Thirteen patients were enrolled. No infusion-related adverse events occurred. No hematologic or metabolic adverse events were noted during hospitalization or at 3-weeks. Ten patients had clinical improvement by day 7 (WHO eight-category ordinal severity scale for COVID-19). Following CCP, anti-SARS-CoV-2 anti-nucleocapsid IgG increased significantly at 24 hours and high levels were sustained at 7- and 21-days. Transient IgM response was noted. Twelve patients (92.3%) were discharged home, 9 (75%) by day 7 post-CCP. One remained on invasive ventilatory support 42 days after CCP and was eventually discharged to an intermediate care facility. The single patient death was retrospectively confirmed to have had brain death before CCP. CONCLUSION: CCP was well tolerated in pediatric patients, resulted in rapid antibody increase, and did not appear to interfere with immune responses measured at 21 days. More pediatric data are necessary to establish the efficacy of CCP, but our data suggest benefit in moderate to severe COVID-19 when used early. Other immunologic or antiviral interventions may be added as supported by emerging data.

Multicentre validation of a computer-based tool for differentiation of acute Kawasaki disease from clinically similar febrile illnesses.

BACKGROUND: The clinical features of Kawasaki disease (KD) overlap with those of other paediatric febrile illnesses. A missed or delayed diagnosis increases the risk of coronary artery damage. Our computer algorithm for KD and febrile illness differentiation had a sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value (PPV) and negative predictive value (NPV) of 94.8%, 70.8%, 93.7% and 98.3%, respectively, in a single-centre validation study. We sought to determine the performance of this algorithm with febrile children from multiple institutions across the USA. METHODS: We used our previously published 18-variable panel that includes illness day, the five KD clinical criteria and readily available laboratory values. We applied this two-step algorithm using a linear discriminant analysis-based clinical model followed by a random forest-based algorithm to a cohort of 1059 acute KD and 282 febrile control patients from five children's hospitals across the USA. RESULTS: The algorithm correctly classified 970 of 1059 patients with KD and 163 of 282 febrile controls resulting in a sensitivity of 91.6%, specificity of 57.8% and PPV and NPV of 95.4% and 93.1%, respectively. The algorithm also correctly identified 218 of the 232 KD patients (94.0%) with abnormal echocardiograms. INTERPRETATION: The expectation is that the predictive accuracy of the algorithm will be reduced in a real-world setting in which patients with KD are rare and febrile controls are common. However, the results of the current analysis suggest that this algorithm warrants a prospective, multicentre study to evaluate its potential utility as a physician support tool.

Safety and Tolerability of Clofazimine in a Cohort of Children With Odontogenic Mycobacterium abscessus Infection.

Mycobacterium abscessus infections can be challenging to treat. Clofazimine has excellent in vitro activity against M abscessus, but reports of its use, particularly in children, have been limited. In this study, clofazimine was given to 27 children during an outbreak of odontogenic mycobacterial infections and seemed to be well tolerated as part of a multidrug regimen.

The Kawasaki Disease Comparative Effectiveness (KIDCARE) trial: A phase III, randomized trial of second intravenous immunoglobulin versus infliximab for resistant Kawasaki disease.

BACKGROUND: Although intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG) is effective therapy for Kawasaki disease (KD), the most common cause of acquired heart disease in children, 10-20% of patients are IVIG-resistant and require additional therapy. This group has an increased risk of coronary artery aneurysms (CAA) and there has been no adequately powered, randomized clinical trial in a multi-ethnic population to determine the optimal therapy for IVIG-resistant patients. OBJECTIVES: The primary outcome is duration of fever in IVIG-resistant patients randomized to treatment with either infliximab or a second IVIG infusion. Secondary outcomes include comparison of inflammatory markers, duration of hospitalization, and coronary artery outcome. An exploratory aim records parent-reported outcomes including signs, symptoms and treatment experience. METHODS: The KIDCARE trial is a 30-site randomized Phase III comparative effectiveness trial in KD patients with fever ≥36 h after the completion of their first IVIG treatment. Eligible patients will be randomized to receive either a second dose of IVIG (2 g/kg) or infliximab (10 mg/kg). Subjects with persistent or recrudescent fever at 24 h following completion of the first study treatment will cross-over to the other treatment arm. Subjects will exit the study after their first outpatient visit (5-18 days following last study treatment). The parent-reported outcomes, collected daily during hospitalization and at home, will be compared by study arm. CONCLUSION: This trial will contribute to the management of IVIG-resistant patients by establishing the relative efficacy of a second dose of IVIG compared to infliximab and will provide data regarding the patient/parent experience of these treatments.

Blood Viral Load in Symptomatic Congenital Cytomegalovirus Infection.

BACKGROUND: Viral loads (VLs) frequently are followed during treatment of symptomatic congenital cytomegalovirus disease, but their predictive value is unclear. METHODS: Post hoc analysis of 2 antiviral studies was performed. Seventy-three subjects were treated for 6 weeks and 47 subjects were treated for 6 months. Whole blood VL was determined by real-time polymerase chain reaction before and during therapy. RESULTS: Higher baseline VL was associated with central nervous system involvement (3.82 log, range 1-5.65 vs 3.32 log, range 1-5.36; P = .001), thrombocytopenia (3.68 log, range 1-5.65 vs 3.43 log, range 1-5.36; P = .03), and transaminitis at presentation (3.73 log, range 1-5.60 vs 3.39 log, range 1-5.65; P = .009), but with overlap in the amount of virus detected between groups. In subjects treated for 6 months, lower VL at presentation correlated with better hearing outcomes at 12 months, but VL breakpoints predictive of hearing loss were not identified. Sustained viral suppression during 6 months of therapy correlated with better hearing outcomes at 6, 12, and 24 months (P = .01, P = .0007, P = .04), but a majority without viral suppression still had improved hearing. CONCLUSIONS: In infants with symptomatic congenital cytomegalovirus disease, higher whole blood VL before initiation of antiviral therapy has no clinically meaningful predictive value for long-term outcomes.

High Risk of Coronary Artery Aneurysms in Infants Younger than 6 Months of Age with Kawasaki Disease.

OBJECTIVES: To characterize the clinical presentation and outcome in infants <6 months of age with Kawasaki disease (KD) and to describe the use of newer anti-inflammatory therapies in this young population. STUDY DESIGN: We evaluated 88 infants?<6 months old and 632??6 months old treated for KD. We compared differences in laboratory data, response to treatment, and coronary artery outcomes between the 2 cohorts. Fisher exact test was used to analyze categorical variables, whereas the Wilcoxon rank sum test was used for continuous variables. RESULTS: The majority of children in both cohorts were diagnosed and treated within the first 10 days of illness (median illness day 6 in both cohorts). For patients treated within the first 10 days after fever onset, a larger proportion of infants <6 months old had a dilated or aneurysmal coronary artery on the initial echocardiogram compared with those ?6 months old (43.4% vs 19.5%). Furthermore, 18.6% of infants?<6 months old who had a normal echocardiogram at diagnosis, developed a dilated or aneurysmal coronary artery on a subsequent echocardiogram within 8 weeks of diagnosis. Twenty-eight infants?<6 months old received a single dose of infliximab without any untoward effects. CONCLUSIONS: Despite treatment in the first 10 days, infants?<6 months old with acute KD are more likely to develop coronary artery abnormalities. Thus, the development of adjunctive therapies to reduce coronary artery damage should target this population.

Valganciclovir for symptomatic congenital cytomegalovirus disease.

BACKGROUND: The treatment of symptomatic congenital cytomegalovirus (CMV) disease with intravenous ganciclovir for 6 weeks has been shown to improve audiologic outcomes at 6 months, but the benefits wane over time. METHODS: We conducted a randomized, placebo-controlled trial of valganciclovir therapy in neonates with symptomatic congenital CMV disease, comparing 6 months of therapy with 6 weeks of therapy. The primary end point was the change in hearing in the better ear ("best-ear" hearing) from baseline to 6 months. Secondary end points included the change in hearing from baseline to follow-up at 12 and 24 months and neurodevelopmental outcomes, with each end point adjusted for central nervous system involvement at baseline. RESULTS: A total of 96 neonates underwent randomization, of whom 86 had follow-up data at 6 months that could be evaluated. Best-ear hearing at 6 months was similar in the 6-month group and the 6-week group (2 and 3 participants, respectively, had improvement; 36 and 37 had no change; and 5 and 3 had worsening; P=0.41). Total-ear hearing (hearing in one or both ears that could be evaluated) was more likely to be improved or to remain normal at 12 months in the 6-month group than in the 6-week group (73% vs. 57%, P=0.01). The benefit in total-ear hearing was maintained at 24 months (77% vs. 64%, P=0.04). At 24 months, the 6-month group, as compared with the 6-week group, had better neurodevelopmental scores on the Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development, third edition, on the language-composite component (P=0.004) and on the receptive-communication scale (P=0.003). Grade 3 or 4 neutropenia occurred in 19% of the participants during the first 6 weeks. During the next 4.5 months of the study, grade 3 or 4 neutropenia occurred in 21% of the participants in the 6-month group and in 27% of those in the 6-week group (P=0.64). CONCLUSIONS: Treating symptomatic congenital CMV disease with valganciclovir for 6 months, as compared with 6 weeks, did not improve hearing in the short term but appeared to improve hearing and developmental outcomes modestly in the longer term. (Funded by the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases; ClinicalTrials.gov number, NCT00466817.).

Oseltamivir pharmacokinetics, dosing, and resistance among children aged <2 years with influenza.

BACKGROUND: Children <2 years of age are at high risk of influenza-related mortality and morbidity. However, the appropriate dose of oseltamivir for children <2 years of age is unknown. METHODS: The National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases Collaborative Antiviral Study Group evaluated oseltamivir in infants aged <2 years in an age-de-escalation, adaptive design with a targeted systemic exposure. RESULTS: From 2006 to 2010, 87 subjects enrolled. An oseltamivir dose of 3.0 mg/kg produced drug exposures within the target range in subjects 0-8 months of age, although there was a greater degree of variability in infants <3 months of age. In subjects 9-11 months of age, a dose of 3.5 mg/kg produced drug exposures within the target range. Six of 10 subjects aged 12-23 months receiving the Food and Drug Administration-approved unit dose for this age group (ie, 30 mg) had oseltamivir carboxylate exposures below the target range. Virus from 3 subjects developed oseltamivir resistance during antiviral treatment. CONCLUSIONS: The appropriate twice-daily oral oseltamivir dose for infants ≤8 months of age is 3.0 mg/kg, while the dose for infants 9-11 months old is 3.5 mg/kg.

Clinical and laboratory features of pertussis in infants at the onset of a California epidemic.

We report clinical characteristics and outcome of infants <3 months of age hospitalized with pertussis compared with viral respiratory infection (respiratory syncytial virus and influenza). Patients with pertussis more often were afebrile, had more visits before admission, and had longer hospital stays. Household coughing contacts were common.

A cluster of pediatric endemic typhus cases in Orange County, California.

Murine typhus is typically a mild febrile illness caused by Rickettsia typhi, generally confined to Texas and Southern California. Clinicians should consider early treatment with doxycycline when presented with a child having protracted fever, rash, and headache.We present 5 pediatric cases and a literature review highlighting the changing epidemiology and diagnostic difficulty of typhus.

Once-weekly liposomal amphotericin B as Candida prophylaxis in very low birth weight premature infants: a prospective, randomized, open-label, placebo-controlled pilot study.

OBJECTIVE: This study was conducted to evaluate once-weekly liposomal amphotericin B (L-AmB) for Candida prophylaxis in very low birth weight (VLBW) neonates. METHODS: This prospective, randomized, open-label, placebo-controlled study included neonates who were <32 weeks' gestational age, <7 days old, and weighing <1500 g at birth. Subjects were randomized to receive L-AmB 5 mg/kg per week or placebo (dextrose water) and were followed until 6 weeks of age. Surveillance cultures were obtained at baseline, at 72 hours, and weekly thereafter. Study drug was continued until 6 weeks after birth or the discontinuation of high-risk treatments and invasive devices, whichever occurred first. Blood cultures were obtained as clinically indicated. The primary end point was development of Candida colonization by 6 weeks' postnatal age; secondary end points included development of invasive candidiasis and occurrence of treatment-related adverse events. Safety variables included renal and hepatic function tests, incidence of grade III-IV intraventricular hemorrhage (IVH) and necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC), and mortality. RESULTS: Forty subjects were enrolled and randomized to receive L-AmB (12 males, 8 females; 50% white) or placebo (12 males, 8 females; 35% white). Subjects were evenly distributed by gestational age, age at enrollment, birth weight, race, and sex. Consent was withdrawn after completion of study treatment in 1 subject (L-AmB); 1 subject in each study arm died during the study; and 3 subjects were transferred back to their referring institutions (1 L-AmB, 2 placebo). Thus, 17 subjects in each arm completed all study procedures, although all 40 subjects were evaluable. Colonization before administration of study drug was noted in 4 L-AmB subjects (20%) and 1 placebo subject (5%); 1 (5%) and 3 (15%) subjects in the respective groups developed colonization while receiving study drug. No L-AmB subjects and 1 placebo subject developed candidiasis. One subject in each group died; these deaths were not considered related to study drug or fungal infection. There were no clinical differences between groups in the incidence of grade III-IV IVH, NEC, hypokalemia, nephrotoxicity, need for platelet or packed red blood cell transfusion, or mortality. CONCLUSIONS: L-AmB 5 mg/kg once weekly was generally well tolerated in these VLBW infants. The data did not allow evaluation of efficacy. A larger, multicenter, randomized clinical trial of L-AmB for Candida prophylaxis that is appropriately powered is warranted.

Risk factors for nonresponse to therapy in Kawasaki disease.

OBJECTIVE: To study the refractory cases of Kawasaki disease (KD) and identify potential risk factors in patients in whom standard therapy fails. STUDY DESIGN: A retrospective chart review of patients with KD admitted from January 1, 2002, through December 31, 2006. Demographic, clinical, laboratory, echocardiographic, and therapeutic data were recorded. RESULTS: Of 196 patients, 40 (20%) needed re-treatment. The number of refractory cases were 7 (14.3%), 6 (17.1%), 11(28.9%), 10 (24.4%), and 6 (17.6%) for 2002 to 2006, respectively. There were no significant differences in age, sex, ethnicity, number of days with symptoms at diagnosis, white blood cell count, erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR), or C-reactive protein (CRP). Refractory patients had higher band counts (22.7% vs 7%), lower albumin levels (3 vs 3.4), and a higher number of abnormal echocardiography results at diagnosis (80% vs 16.1%). CONCLUSIONS: An elevated band count, low albumin level, and an abnormal initial echocardiography result can be useful tools to identify patients at risk for a more complicated clinical course.

Micafungin in pediatrics: when one size does not fit all.

Micafungin is one of three FDA-approved echinocandins, a novel class of antifungal agents that target 1,3-beta-D-glucan in the fungal cell wall. Its spectrum of activity and favorable safety profile have made it an attractive option in the treatment of invasive Candida and Aspergillus infections. Since its approval in 2005 in the US, a variety of studies describing micafungin's use in the pediatric population have been published. As with many drugs, the pharmacokinetic profiles observed in the pediatric population differ from those seen in adult studies. A thorough understanding of the unique characteristics of this drug in the pediatric population is essential in order to optimize treatment outcomes for this diverse population of patients.

Persistence of nevirapine in breast milk after discontinuation of treatment.

The objective of this study was to serially quantitate the concentration of nevirapine in breast milk after discontinuation of treatment. Samples were collected from both breasts of a human immunodeficiency virus-infected patient for 3 weeks. Nevirapine was quantifiable for up to 17 days after discontinuation of therapy; total nevirapine concentrations remained above the 90% inhibitory concentration for 6 days, and no differences were observed between breasts.