The use of unfixed bone marrow trephines for multicolour flow cytometry.

An adequate bone marrow aspirate is essential for a rapid diagnosis of acute leukaemia by multicolour flow cytometry enabling the simultaneous assessment of multiple antigens on the cell surface as well as intracellular or nuclear ones. In the context of acute leukaemia, it is important to have a diagnosis of the blasts lineage as soon as possible to decide the appropriate treatment. This is sometimes delayed due to difficulties in obtaining a bone marrow aspirate due to a "dry tap". In this study we evaluated retrospectively cell markers results by flow cytometry of unfixed bone marrow trephines of 65 patients with leukaemia at diagnosis and including a few after treatment. Our aims were: 1) To compare cell markers results between bone marrow trephine (BMT) and bone marrow aspirate (BMA) 24 cases and BMT with peripheral blood (PB) 14 cases in paired samples to establish if they were reproducible with results of the unfixed bone marrow trephine biopsies. 2) To ascertain a precise diagnosis in 27 (42%) of the cases in which only a bone marrow trephine was available. We demonstrated that unfixed bone marrow trephine provides an adequate and representative cell suspension for flow cytometry and it is a powerful tool when no other material (bone marrow aspirate or peripheral blood) is available to make a rapid diagnosis. Furthermore when marrow aspirate or peripheral blood paired samples were available, flow cytometry results obtained were identical across all the sample types. Applicability to the clinical laboratory: We described a method to obtain a cell suspension from core biopsies that can easily be implemented routinely in a laboratory that performs diagnostic flow cytometry immunophenotyping. This method is simple, inexpensive and it doesn't require extra equipment.

Isolated intracranial Rosai-Dorfman disease in a child, a case report and review of the literature.

BACKGROUND: Rosai-Dorfman disease (RDD), otherwise known as sinus histiocytosis with massive lymphadenopathy (SHML), usually affects young adults and commonly presents with massive painless cervical lymphadenopathy. Extranodal disease is present in a third of patients, and it is recognised that this can involve the central nervous system. Intracranial RDD is rare in adults and fewer than 10 paediatric cases have been reported. CASE: A 10-year-old boy with isolated intracranial RDD presents with a painless forehead mass. The management is discussed and the literature reviewed. CONCLUSION: This case of isolated intracranial RDD highlights the importance of considering RDD in the differential of paediatric intracranial mass lesions and outlines the diagnostic and treatment challenges faced when managing this rare condition.

Hepatocellular carcinoma, syncytial giant cell: a novel variant in children: a case report.

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the second most common primary malignant hepatic tumor in children. It often develops in patients with underlying liver disease. We report the clinicopathologic features of an unusual HCC occurring in an infant who presented with features of Cushing's syndrome due to bilateral adrenal hyperplasia. The tumor is characterized by epithelial syncytial giant cells. Giant cell carcinoma of the liver has been previously reported, but the cells were osteoclast-like (ie, mesenchymal type) and not epithelial type as it is in this patient. We propose to use the term HCC, syncytial giant cell type, to denote this apparently novel lesion.

Acute neurotoxicity in children with advanced stage B-non-Hodgkin's lymphoma and B-acute lymphoblastic leukaemia treated with the United Kingdom children cancer study group 9002/9003 protocols.

We reviewed the pattern of acute neurotoxicity in children with B-non-Hodgkin's lymphoma (B-NHL) and B-acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (ALL) treated with the UKCCSG 9002/9003 protocols. Among 175 patients, 21 (12%) developed acute neurotoxicity: 9002 protocol (n=11/112) and 9003 (n=10/63). There were 20 boys and the median age was 10 years. Patients with neurological symptoms due to other causes were excluded. Acute neurological symptoms developed following induction chemotherapy in 7 patients, or after a more intensive course of chemotherapy containing high-dose methotrexate (n=14). Nine patients required their chemotherapy to be altered because of the acute neurotoxicity. One patient died of cerebral haemorrhage but none of the remaining six deaths was attributed to acute neurotoxicity. We conclude that acute neurotoxicity is common in children treated with the 9002/9003 protocols and tends to be transient. Intrathecal and systemic chemotherapy including high-dose methotrexate is probably the most common predisposing factor. Modification of subsequent chemotherapy is not invariably necessary.

Thalidomide after allogeneic haematopoietic stem cell transplantation: activity in chronic but not in acute graft-versus-host disease.

Thalidomide was used to treat acute (n=21) or chronic (n=59) graft-vs-host disease (GVHD) in 80 haematopoietic stem cell allograft recipients after failure to respond to the combination of cyclosporine and corticosteroids with or without other agents. The median time to onset of acute GVHD was 11 days, and thalidomide was started at a median of 48 days post transplant. In addition to corticosteroids and cyclosporine, 13 patients had also received other agents before thalidomide. None of the patients responded and all died of acute GVHD. For chronic GVHD (limited in 13, extensive in 46), thalidomide was started at a median of 385 days post transplant. In addition to corticosteroids and cyclosporine, 34 patients received azathioprine concomitantly. In all patients, thalidomide was added to the ongoing immunosuppressive regimen. The median duration of therapy with thalidomide was 60 days (range, 11-1210; <2 weeks in 11). In total, 13 patients (22%) had complete response, eight (14%) partial response and 38 (64%) no response. Response rates were comparable for limited (39%) and extensive (33%) chronic GVHD. At a median of 53 months, 19 patients are alive, 13 without evidence of chronic GVHD. Survival was significantly better in patients who responded to thalidomide. The principal causes of death were progressive chronic GVHD (n=29) and relapsed leukaemia (n=7). In conclusion, thalidomide has no activity in acute GVHD, but has some activity in chronic GVHD in combination with other agents.

Role of itraconazole in haematology/oncology.

The antifungal agents most frequently used in prophylaxis and treatment are amphotericin B (and its new lipid forms) and azoles such as fluconazole, itraconazole, and more recently voriconazole. This review assesses the role of itraconazole in paediatric haematology/oncology practice. Its broader spectrum of activity and availability in oral and intravenous forms allow a flexible approach in the management of fungal infections.

Vertebral compression fractures in acute lymphoblastic leukaemia and remodelling after treatment.

Three children, aged 7-10 years, with acute lymphoblastic leukaemia presented with back pain, along with a mild kyphosis. Collapse of the vertebral bodies at multiple levels was shown on imaging. Chemotherapy resulted in pain resolution and spontaneous remodelling of the vertebrae.

Outcome of relapsed or refractory childhood B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukaemia and B-cell non-Hodgkin's lymphoma treated with the UKCCSG 9003/9002 protocols.

Twenty-six children with B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (B-ALL) or Murphy Stage III or IV B-cell non-Hodgkin's lymphoma (B-NHL) progressed or relapsed after first-line therapy with a short, intensive multiagent chemotherapy regimen [United Kingdom Childhood Cancer Study Group (UKCCSG) 9003] (n = 62) or a slightly less intensive regimen (UKCCSG 9002) (n = 112). Eight patients (4.6%) never achieved complete remission (CR) and 18 (10.3%) relapsed. Second-line therapy resulted in remission for eight patients (30%). All patients initially treated with the 9003 protocol died. Three patients (11.5%) in the 9002 group, including one who never achieved CR in the primary site, are alive after second-line therapy. This study confirms that the prognosis of relapsed or refractory B-ALL/B-NHL is poor and exceptionally so if relapse occurred less than 6 months from diagnosis. High-dose therapy with stem cell rescue was used in only seven patients; its role needs to be studied further.

Improved outcome in children with advanced stage B-cell non-Hodgkin's lymphoma (B-NHL): results of the United Kingdom Children Cancer Study Group (UKCCSG) 9002 protocol.

From July 1990 to March 1996, 112 children with stage III or IV B-cell non-Hodgkin's lymphoma (B-NHL) with up to 70% FAB L3-type blasts (n = 42) in the bone marrow without central nervous system (CNS) disease were treated on the United Kingdom Children Cancer Study Group (UKCCSG) 9002 protocol (identical to the French LMB 84). The median age was 8.3 years. There were 81 boys and 31 girls. According to the extent of the primary disease, patients were sub-staged into three groups: IIIA with unresectable abdominal tumour (n = 39); IIIB with abdominal multiorgan involvement (n = 57) and IIIX with extra-abdominal primary lymphoma often presenting as pleural effusion (n = 16). Univariate and multivariate analyses were carried out to evaluate the prognostic significance of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) level at diagnosis, the sub-stage and the time to achieve complete remission (CR). With a median follow up of 48 months (range 12-92), the overall and event free survival (EFS) is 87% (95% confidence interval (CI) 79.2-92.1 %) and 83.7% (95% CI 76.3-89.2%) respectively. Six patients (5.4%) never achieved CR, of whom one is alive following high-dose therapy. Eight patients (7.1%) relapsed after achieving CR, three are alive after second-line therapy. There were three early toxic deaths (2.7%), mainly from infection, and one late death from a second cancer. There was no significant difference in EFS according to LDH level at diagnosis, the sub-stage or the time to CR. This study confirms the overall good prognosis and low rate of toxic deaths in patients with advanced B-NHL treated with this intensive regimen. No significant difference in EFS according to the sub-stage, the time to achieve CR or LDH level at diagnosis making it difficult to identify a group that should not receive intensive therapy.

Autologous bone marrow transplantation for childhood acute lymphoblastic leukaemia in second remission - long-term follow-up.

From 1984 to 1996, 31 consecutive children without sibling donors, aged 5-19 years (median 8) with acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (ALL) in second complete remission (CR), received unpurged autologous bone marrow transplantation (ABMT) after melphalan and single fraction total body irradiation (TBI). ABMT was performed using fresh unmanipulated marrow harvested after standard reinduction and consolidation therapy 2-11 months (median 5) after relapse. With a median survival of 2.9 years the probability of survival for all patients in continuing second CR was 45.1% (95% CI, 24%-62%) after 5 years. Regimen-related and non-leukaemia mortality was 7% (95% CI, 2%-26%). The longest time to second relapse from ABMT was 3.1 years. Pituitary and gonadal dysfunction requiring hormonal replacement therapy occurred in the majority of long-term survivors. Twelve patients developed cataracts. ABMT with melphalan/single fraction TBI has proved an effective anti-leukaemia treatment with low regimen-related mortality but significant long-term morbidity. The current approach of allogeneic BMT from an unrelated donor when no sibling donor is available, following conditioning with cyclophosphamide/ fractionated TBI has resulted in a reduced relapse rate and improved short-term overall survival in the treatment of relapsed childhood ALL. However, long-term results are awaited.

Melphalan/TBI is not more carcinogeneic than cyclophosphamide/TBI for transplant conditioning: follow-up of 725 patients from a single centre over a period of 26 years.

As there is concern regarding the high carcinogenic potential of melphalan (Mel), 725 patients with haematological malignancies who received allogeneic (n = 714) or syngeneic (n = 11) transplants over the last 26 years were followed-up to evaluate if melphalan was more likely to result in secondary malignant neoplasms (SMNs) than cyclophosphamide (Cy). Three hundred and ninety-five were treated with Cy/TBI and 330 with Mel/TBI. Twelve patients developed non-haematological SMN. Median time to develop a SMN was 7 years (range 2-17 years). Age-adjusted rate was significantly higher than in the general population (observed 12 expected 1.2, risk 10; P < 0.0001). The cumulative overall risk of developing a SMN at 2, 5, 10 and 15 years post transplant was 0.4% (95% CI 0.1-2.6%), 1.7% (95% CI 0.6-4.4%), 6.4% (95% CI 2.8-10.8%) and 6.6% (95% CI 3.4-12.4%), respectively. Even though age-adjusted rates were higher than the general population melphalan/TBI was not associated with higher age-adjusted risk than Cy/TBI (increased risk 7.9 vs 11.4; P = NS). The cumulative overall risk of SMNs was not different with CY/TBI or Mel/TBI (8/393 vs 4/363; 10 year risk 4.4%, 95% CI 1.8-10.6 vs 8.4%, 95% CI 2.9-22.9; P = NS). The risk was significantly higher with use of additional cranial or cranio-spinal irradiation (17.5% vs 2.7% at 10 years; P = 0.0241). Transplants for acute lymphatic leukaemia resulted in a higher incidence of SMNs than did transplants for other diseases (ALL: 17.4%, 95% CI 6.3-42.6%; other diseases: 3.4% (95% 1.3-8.5%, P = 0.0469). The risk of SMN for patients with chronic GVHD was 8.4% (95% CI 3.7-18.7%) as compared to 3.5% (95% CI 1-11.1%) for patients without chronic GVHD (P = NS). No factor was associated with independently increased risk in multivariate analysis. Use of melphalan and TBI for transplant conditioning does not appear to be associated with higher risk of second malignant neoplasms than cyclophosphamide and TBI.

Disease features in acute myeloid leukemia with t(8;21)(q22;q22). Influence of age, secondary karyotype abnormalities, CD19 status, and extramedullary leukemia on survival.

Over a period of 14 years, 50 patients (12 children and 38 adults) of whom 46 had acute myeloid leukemia (AML) and 4 had myelodysplastic syndrome characterized by the t(8;21)(q22;q22) translocation were referred to the Royal Marsden Hospital. The clinicopathological features of these cases were analyzed to determine the influence of age, secondary karyotype abnormalities, and expression of the lymphoid marker CD19 on event free survival, and presence of extramedullary leukemia on overall survival. They were treated with a variety of chemotherapy protocols and some had bone marrow transplantation. There appeared to be no difference in survival between children (age <17 years) and adults (age >16 years). Out of the 50 cases, 16 (32%) had the (8;21) translocation alone, 17 (34%) had additional loss of a sex chromosome and the remaining 17 (34%) had other karyotype abnormalities of which deletion or translocation of the long arms of a #9 was most common (observed in 8 of the 17 patients). The karyotype groups had a significant impact on survival, the group with loss of a sex chromosome having a poorer outcome and the group with abnormalities of chromosome 9 having a better outcome. CD19 positivity was seen in 21 of the 33 cases (63%) in whom it was measured compared to 11% observed in controls with AML without a t(8;21). CD19 status did not exert any influence on event free survival. Extramedullary leukemia (EML) occurred in 5 of the 50 cases (10%). In one patient it was observed at diagnosis but in the others it presented concurrent with bone marrow relapse. The overall survival of patients with EML was worse than that of the other patients but did not achieve statistical significance and was probably adversely affected by other factors.

Acute erythroid leukemia (M6): outcome of bone marrow transplantation.

Erythroid leukemia is an uncommon form of acute myeloid leukemia (AML) which has previously been associated with a poor prognosis. We present the outcome of 27 patients with AML-M6 (19 de novo and 8 secondary) treated with intensive regimens including bone marrow transplantation (BMT). In the de novo group, median age was 30 years (2-72); 5 cases were under 15 years. Remission rate after induction chemotherapy was 95%. Consolidation in those achieving remission with BMT was 82%. Transplant related mortality was 36%. Median survival for de novo M6 was 2.9 years which was not significantly different to matched controls with AML (non M6). Overall relapse rate was 35%. In contrast, patients with secondary disease had a poor prognosis with lower remission rates (57%) and higher relapse rates (75% of those achieving remission after induction chemotherapy). In our series, the prognosis of patients with AML-M6 was most closely related to age and disease status at presentation (de novo or secondary). The disease is sensitive to AML induction regimens and long-term survival can be achieved with BMT in first complete remission.

Outcome of biphenotypic acute leukemia.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE: Although biphenotypic leukemia is now a defined entity, outcome of this rare form of acute leukemia has not been well documented. We present the first comprehensive study analyzing induction and consolidation therapy of biphenotypic leukemia and correlate outcome to prognostic factors. DESIGN AND METHODS: In this retrospective study, the incidence of biphenotypic leukemia was found to be 3.6% from 693 adult and pediatric acute leukemias referred to our center for treatment over the last 8 years. Of these, 15 were B-lymphoid/myeloid, 8 were T-lymphoid/myeloid, one was T/B lymphoid and one had trilineage differentiation. RESULTS: Induction of remission in de novo cases was achieved in 70% of patients and relapse of disease occurred in 15%. The use of combined lymphoid and myeloid drugs for induction resulted in a high incidence of early deaths (25%). The overall probability of survival at 2 years was 39.4%. Patients with secondary disease had a uniformly poor outcome with low remission rates and high relapse rates. INTERPRETATION AND CONCLUSIONS: Prognosis was most strongly related to the presence of the Philadelphia chromosome (p=0.03) and age under 15 years (p=0.01). We conclude that patients with biphenotypic leukemia should have risk stratification with treatment tailored to their prognostic factors.

Local therapy and other factors influencing site of relapse in patients with localised Ewing's sarcoma. United Kingdom Children's Cancer Study Group (UKCCSG).

Relapse patterns have been documented in 191 children with localised Ewing's sarcoma treated with the United Kingdom Children's Cancer Group (UKCCSG) Ewing's Tumour regimen ET2. All received chemotherapy comprising ifosfamide, vincristine, doxorubicin and actinomycin D. Local treatment modality was excision and or radiotherapy depending on tumour site and response to primary chemotherapy. Although not strictly comparable, due to the clinical indications used for each modality, local relapse rates were very low and were similar, irrespective of the type of local treatment modality: radiotherapy (3/56), surgery (7/114) or a combination (0/20). Combined relapse (local + distant) rates were similarly low irrespective of the type of local therapy: radiotherapy (4/56), surgery (4/114) or a combination (0/20). Overall survival was lower in females (P = < 0.04), older children (P = < 0.002) and those with primaries at sites other than long bones (P = < 0.02). It is concluded that with effective intensive chemotherapy combined with either radiotherapy or surgery, local control in this study was excellent at sites other than the pelvis. Preventing distant relapse, predominantly to lung and bone, remains the major challenge.

Successful treatment of Aspergillus fungaemia in two children with acute lymphoblastic leukaemia.

Aspergillus species can cause life-threatening infection in immunocompromised children. Pulmonary infections are the most common, and are usually acquired through inhalations of aspergillus spores in unfiltered air. Some patients acquire invasive aspergillus infection from endogenous spread of colonized para-nasal sinuses.

Conservative management of follicular non-Hodgkin's lymphoma in childhood.

Among 447 children with non-Hodgkin's lymphoma (NHL) on the childhood U.K. registry, seven children with follicular (NHL) were identified. Four were male and their age ranged from 4.25 to 13.5 years (median 7.5); all had localized disease, Murphy's stage I (n = 4) and II (n = 3). Sites involved at presentation were cervical lymph nodes and tonsils (n = 5), ileum (n = 1) and parotid gland (n = 1). Three had complete surgical excision only and four had complete (n = 1) or incomplete excision (n= 3) followed by a short multi-agent chemotherapy regimen (UKCCSG 9001 protocol). With a median follow-up of 1.5 years (range 0.25-5 years) from diagnosis, six are alive in complete remission (CR) including three who had no chemotherapy. These results confirm previous reports that follicular lymphomas in children are rare (1.5%) and tend to be localized at presentation. Their rarity makes it difficult to produce guidelines about treatment, but in localized cases a period of non-intervention may be justified.

Improved cure rate in children with B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (B-ALL) and stage IV B-cell non-Hodgkin's lymphoma (B-NHL)--results of the UKCCSG 9003 protocol.

From June 1990 to February 1996, 35 patients with B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (B-ALL) 13 of whom had CNS disease and 28 patients with stage IV B-cell non-Hodgkin's lymphoma (B-NHL) 22 of whom had CNS involvement were treated with a short, intensive multiagent chemotherapy regimen (UKCCSG 9003 protocol) based on the French LMB 86 regimen. Fifty-five were boys. The age range was 11 months to 16.5 years (median 8.4 years). Chemotherapy included cyclophosphamide, vincristine, daunorubicin, high-dose methotrexate (COPADM) and etoposide/high-dose cytarabine (CYVE) with frequent intrathecal (i.t.) triple therapy (methotrexate, cytarabine and hydrocortisone). Cranial irradiation (24 Gy in 15 fractions) was recommended in patients with overt CNS disease. One patient with Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome was withdrawn after entry and has been excluded from the analysis. Ten patients (16%) have relapsed (CNS, four; BM, two; combined CNS and BM, three; and jaw, one) 4-11 months after diagnosis and two patients never achieved complete remission (CR). All have died. In seven of the patients who relapsed, treatment had been modified or delayed because of poor clinical condition. Seven patients (11%) died of toxicity 11 days to 4 months after diagnosis. The cause of death was sepsis (n = 5) or sepsis with renal failure (n = 2). With a median follow-up of 3.1 years from diagnosis (range 9 months to 6.3 years), 43 patients (69%) survive in CR. This study confirms the effectiveness of this regimen with regard to the relapse rate (16%), although the rate of toxic death is of concern.

Metastatic cardiac osteosarcoma--imaging features.

There are several reports of osteosarcoma metastases to the heart. A rare case of a metastatic osteosarcoma to the endocardium of the left atrium in a 17 year old patient is described. The radiological features are discussed in detail.