Alterations in breast morphology consequent to a 21-day bust developer program.

Normal menstruating females, 19 to 32 years of age, were randomly assigned to either a control (C; N = 17) or an experimental (E; N = 17) group to determine alterations in breast size, shape, and volume consequent to a 21-day bust development program (BDP) using a commercial exercise device as specified by the manufacturer. E and C groups were evaluated on 2 consecutive d prior to initiating the BDP to establish reliability of the test procedures and again at the end of the BDP, 27 to 29 d following the initial measures. Anthropometric measures included the following girths: shoulder, chest, bust with and without brassiere, abdomen, deltoid, and flexed biceps. Breast photography included two 35-mm photographs each from the side and front views, in both full inspiration and full expiration, with the subject position carefully standardized. A total of 10 measurements, corrected for perspective error, were obtained from these photographs. Breast volume was measured using a water displacement technique, with three trials for each breast. Repeated measures analysis of variance procedures indicated no significant differences consequent to the BDP for any of the variables assessed, with the exception of a small decrease in shoulder girth in both E and C and a small decrease in left breast volume in E. It was concluded that the use of a commercial exercise device with a specific BDP does not result in changes in breast size, shape, or volume.

Anthropometric measurements of 3-, 4-, 5-, and 6-year-old girls and boys.

This study examined the physical size and subcutaneous body fat of 269 Caucasian boys and girls, ages 3, 4, 5, and 6. In addition to height, weight, and leg length, the measurements included seven diameter, eight circumference, and five skinfold measurements. The means and standard deviations for all anthropometric measurements are presented. When compared by age group, the children were significantly different (p < .01) on all physical size measurements, but not on the skinfold measurements. When the measurements were analyzed to determine significant sex differences, it was evident that, where differences existed, the boys' physical size measurements were larger than the girls', while on the other hand, the girls had a greater amount of subcutaneous body fat than did the boys. The anthropometric data reported in this study did not support the secular trend phenomenon, but substantiated the contention that between three and six years of age, the triceps skinfold measurement declines gradually for boys and remains stable for girls. In summary, it is imperative that anthropometric measurement standards be continually revised and kept current, and that when possible, children be individually evaluated for classification into groups and not classified solely on the basis of age and sex.

Kinematics of locomotion by cats with a single hindlimb deafferented.

1. Cinematographic measurements were made of stepping by cats on a motor-driven treadmill, both normally and 2-3 wk after deafferentation of the LH (left hind) limb. 2. After surgery, rhythmic cycling of the LH limb was blurred whether the leg was dragged, as by some cats, or if it was lifted from the surface, as by others. 3. Interlimb coordination was also blurred with respect to normal, although distinct rhythms were still seen. The RH (right hind) limb descended prematurely and, in the walk, had a prolonged stance phase. The interval between touchdowns of hind- and forelimb on the left side no longer equaled that interval on the right side. 4. As is true for a normal cat, if the LH-deafferented animal stumbled, relatively normal single and interlimb cyclings were regained after several strides. 5. By kinematic analysis, force deficits were found in the deafferented LH limb both during the stance, when extensors should be most active, and the swing, when the limb failed to attain a normal position above the surface of the belt. Weight bearing by the LF (left fore) limb was altered in some animals. 6. At high speed, mean LH stance duration failed to decrease in the normal fashion. Inter-limb timings were reset to greater extent than in low-speed walking, as if the LH limb was being used only minimally. 7. It was concluded that both rhythm and force were impaired in the deafferented limb and also in the three intact limbs, whose weight bearing had to compensate for LH weakness. The changed mechanical demands after surgery were probably met by interactions between the remaining afferent input and central pattern generators so as to secure fairly effective and expedient locomotion.

Neural implications of different profiles between treadmill and overground locomotion timings in cats.

A cinematographic comparison of treadmill and overground performances by the cat revealed considerable flexibility in the neural control program for locomotion. For the single limb's step cycle, swing duration (time foot is off the surface) was approximately equal in both situations, as has been found previously. Subcomponents of the swing (flexion duration and timings between joints during the transition from flexion to extension) differed, however. Interlimb timings also responded to situation. The interval between touchdown of one hindlimb and the ipsilateral forelimb was reduced for treadmill stepping. An ipsilateral coupling interval also differed that had been previously reported to involve propriospinal activity, the time for onset of extension during the swing phase of the hindlimb to the onset of flexion at the beginning of the swing phase in the forelimb. Segmental afferent input, visual and other suprasegmental inputs, and motivational variables probably all contribute to the separation of treadmill and overground timing profiles.