Diagnostic Accuracy of Conjunctival Rt-Pcr in Sars-Cov-2: A Systematic Review and Diagnostic Accuracy Meta-Analysis.

PURPOSE: To study the positivity rate of conjunctival realtime polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) testing for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). DESIGN: Systematic review and diagnostic accuracy meta-analysis. METHODS: MEDLINE and EMBASE were queried using medical subject headings terms. Diagnostic accuracy meta-analyses and forest plots were obtained using the RevMan software. RESULTS: After deduplication, appraisal of abstract titles and full-text analysis of 1441 articles, 42 articles with 3351 COVID-19 patients were included in this review. Of these, 412 conjunctival swabs/Schirmer paper strips tested positive for SARS-CoV-2 by RT-PCR. The pooled sensitivity of the RT-PCR tests across the 24 studies with laboratory-confirmed COVID-19 patients was 10.3%. CONCLUSIONS: Only 1 in 10 RT-PCR tests performed on conjunctival swabs were positive for SARS-CoV-2. Although this suggests that SARS-CoV-2 is likely present and detectable in the conjunctiva, this detection method has low diagnostic potential.

Sleep disturbance in adults with cancer: a systematic review of evidence for best practices in assessment and management for clinical practice.

Sleep disturbance is prevalent in cancer with detrimental effects on health outcomes. Sleep problems are seldom identified or addressed in cancer practice. The purpose of this review was to identify the evidence base for the assessment and management of cancer-related sleep disturbance (insomnia and insomnia syndrome) for oncology practice. The search of the health literature included grey literature data sources and empirical databases from June 2004 to June 2012. The evidence was reviewed by a Canadian Sleep Expert Panel, comprised of nurses, psychologists, primary care physicians, oncologists, physicians specialized in sleep disturbances, researchers and guideline methodologists to develop clinical practice recommendations for pan-Canadian use reported in a separate paper. Three clinical practice guidelines and 12 randomized, controlled trials were identified as the main source of evidence. Additional guidelines and systematic reviews were also reviewed for evidence-based recommendations on the assessment and management of insomnia not necessarily in cancer. A need to routinely screen for sleep disturbances was identified and the randomized, controlled trial (RCT) evidence suggests benefits for cognitive behavioural therapy for improving sleep quality in cancer. Sleep disturbance is a prevalent problem in cancer that needs greater recognition in clinical practice and in future research.

Models of care for post-treatment follow-up of adult cancer survivors: a systematic review and quality appraisal of the evidence.

PURPOSE: The impact of cancer and cancer treatment on the long-term health and quality of life of survivors is substantial, leading to questions about the most appropriate configuration of services and models of care for follow-up of post-primary treatment survivors. METHODS: A systematic review and quality appraisal of the health literature for structure of services and models of follow-up care for post-treatment survivors was identified through a search of guideline sources and empirical databases including MEDLINE, EMBASE, PsycINFO, the Cochrane Library, CINAHL, and EBSCO from 1999 through December 2009. RESULTS: Ten practice guidelines and nine randomized controlled trials comprised the evidence base for models of care for adult cancer survivors. Although the evidence base was rated as low quality, nurse-led and primary care physician models of follow-up care were equivalent for detecting recurrence. Consensus also suggests that cancer survivors may benefit from coordinated transition planning that includes the provision of survivorship care plans as part of standard care. CONCLUSIONS: Realignment of models of care is identified as a health system priority to meet the supportive care and surveillance needs of a burgeoning survivor population. Further research is needed to evaluate the efficacy of models of care in a broader population of cancer survivors with differing needs and risks. While the evidence is limited, there is research that may be used to guide the configuration of health care services and planning.

Survivorship services for adult cancer populations: a pan-Canadian guideline.

OBJECTIVE: Our goal was to develop evidence-based recommendations for the organization and structure of cancer survivorship services, and best-care practices to optimize the health and well-being of post-primary treatment survivors. This review sought to determine the optimal organization and care delivery structure for cancer survivorship services, and the specific clinical practices and interventions that would improve or maximize the psychosocial health and overall well-being of adult cancer survivors. DATA SOURCES: We conducted a systematic search of the Inventory of Cancer Guidelines at the Canadian Partnership Against Cancer, the U.S. National Guideline Clearinghouse, the Canadian Medical Association InfoBase, medline (ovid: 1999 through November 2009), embase (ovid: 1999 through November 2009), Psychinfo (ovid: 1999 through November 2009), the Cochrane Library (ovid; Issue 1, 2009), and cinahl (ebsco: 1999 through December 2009). Reference lists of related papers and recent review articles were scanned for additional citations. METHODS: Articles were selected for inclusion as evidence in the systematic review if they reported on organizational system components for survivors of cancer, or on psychosocial or supportive care interventions HOWELL et al. designed for survivors of cancer. Articles were excluded from the systematic review if they focused only on pediatric cancer survivor populations or on populations that transitioned from pediatric cancer to adult services; if they addressed only pharmacologic interventions or diagnostic testing and follow-up of cancer survivors; if they were systematic reviews with inadequately described methods; if they were qualitative or descriptive studies; and if they were opinion papers, letters, or editorials. DATA EXTRACTION AND SYNTHESIS: Evidence was selected and reviewed by three members of the Cancer Journey Survivorship Expert Panel (SM, TC, TKO). The resulting summary of the evidence was guided further and reviewed by the members of Cancer Journey Survivorship Expert Panel. Fourteen practice guidelines, eight systematic reviews, and sixty-thee randomized controlled trials form the evidence base for this guidance document. These publications demonstrate that survivors benefit from coordinated post-treatment care, including interventions to address specific psychosocial, supportive care, and rehabilitative concerns. CONCLUSIONS: Ongoing high-quality research is essential to optimize services for cancer survivors. Interventions that promote healthy lifestyle behaviours or that address psychosocial concerns and distress appear to improve physical functioning, psychosocial well-being, and quality of life for survivors.

A diamond target for megavoltage cone-beam CT.

PURPOSE: To determine the properties of a megavoltage cone-beam CT system using the unflattened beam from a sintered diamond target at 4 and 6 MV. METHODS: A sintered diamond target was used in place of a graphite target as part of an imaging beam line (an unflattened beam from a graphite target) installed on a linear accelerator. The diamond target, with a greater density than the graphite target, permitted imaging at the lower beam energy (4 MV) required with the graphite target and the higher beam energy (6 MV) conventionally used with the tungsten/stainless steel target and stainless steel flattening filter. Images of phantoms and patients were acquired using the different beam lines and compared. The beam spectra and dose distributions were determined using Monte Carlo simulation. RESULTS: The diamond target allowed use of the same beam energy as for treatment, simplifying commissioning and quality assurance. Images acquired with the diamond target at 4 MV were similar to those obtained with the graphite target at 4 MV. The slight reduction in low energy photons due to the higher-Z sintering material in the diamond target had minimal effect on image quality. Images acquired at 6 MV with the diamond target showed a small decrease in contrast-to-noise ratio, resulting from a decrease in the fraction of photons in the beam in the energy range to which the detector is most sensitive. CONCLUSIONS: The diamond target provides images of a similar quality to the graphite target. Diamond allows use of the higher beam energy conventionally used for treatment, provides a higher dose rate for the same beam current, and potentially simplifies installation and maintenance of the beam line.

Characteristics of megavoltage cone-beam digital tomosynthesis.

This article reports on the image characteristics of megavoltage cone-beam digital tomosynthesis (MVCB DT). MVCB DT is an in-room imaging technique, which enables the reconstruction of several two-dimensional slices from a set of projection images acquired over an arc of 20 degrees-40 degrees. The limited angular range reduces the acquisition time and the dose delivered to the patient, but affects the image quality of the reconstructed tomograms. Image characteristics (slice thickness, shape distortion, and contrast-to-noise ratio) are studied as a function of the angular range. Potential clinical applications include patient setup and the development of breath holding techniques for gated imaging.

Sci-Thurs PM: Delivery-12: Correction and calibration of megavoltage cone-beam CT images for the calculation of the dose of the day.

PURPOSE: To show that accurate dose calculations can be achieved with megavoltage cone-beam CT (MVCBCT) images of head-and-neck (H&N) and prostate sites, allowing the verification of the daily dose distribution received by these patients. METHOD AND MATERIALS: Corrections for the cupping and missing data artifacts seen on MVCBCT images were developed for both H&N and pelvic imaging. MVCBCT images of six H&N and two prostate patients were acquired weekly during the course of their treatment. Several regions of interest were contoured including: the prostate and rectum and the spinal cord and parotids. Dose calculation was performed with the MVCBCT images using the plan beams. Variations from treatment plan dosimetric endpoints were analyzed. RESULTS: Dose calculations with kVCT and corrected MVCBCT images of the H&N (pelvic) regions show standard deviations of 1.9% (0.6%). The mean dose to the right parotid of H&N patients had an average increase of 18% during treatment. The maximum dose to 1% of the spinal cord went up by 2% on average. For prostate patients on one fraction the dose received by 95% of the prostate diminished by 3%. One patient had an average increase of 3.6% of the maximum dose received by 1% of the rectum. CONCLUSION: MVCBCT can be used to verify daily dose distributions for H&N and prostate patients. An increase in the mean dose to normal tissues was observed during H&N treatment. Underdosage of the prostate and the dosimetric consequences of volume changes in rectum and bladder were observed. Research supported by Siemens.

Dose-guided radiation therapy with megavoltage cone-beam CT.

Recent advances in fractionated external beam radiation therapy have increased our ability to deliver radiation doses that conform more tightly to the tumour volume. The steeper dose gradients delivered in these treatments make it increasingly important to set precisely the positions of the patient and the internal organs. For this reason, considerable research now focuses on methods using three-dimensional images of the patient on the treatment table to adapt either the patient position or the treatment plan, to account for variable organ locations. In this article, we briefly review the different adaptive methods being explored and discuss a proposed dose-guided radiation therapy strategy that adapts the treatment for future fractions to compensate for dosimetric errors from past fractions. The main component of this strategy is a procedure to reconstruct the dose delivered to the patient based on treatment-time portal images and pre-treatment megavoltage cone-beam computed tomography (MV CBCT) images of the patient. We describe the work to date performed to develop our dose reconstruction procedure, including the implementation of a MV CBCT system for clinical use, experiments performed to calibrate MV CBCT for electron density and to use the calibrated MV CBCT for dose calculations, and the dosimetric calibration of the portal imager. We also present an example of a reconstructed patient dose using a preliminary reconstruction program and discuss the technical challenges that remain to full implementation of dose reconstruction and dose-guided therapy.

The use of megavoltage cone-beam CT to complement CT for target definition in pelvic radiotherapy in the presence of hip replacement.

In Europe and the USA combined, over half a million people had a hip joint replaced in 2005, contributing to the increasing number of radiotherapy patients with metallic hip prostheses. The treatment plan for external beam radiation therapy is based on the delineation of the anatomy in the planning CT scan. When implanted objects of high atomic number (Z) material are present, however, severe image artefacts are generated in conventional CT, strongly hindering the ability to delineate some organs. This is particularly the case for the planning of prostate patients with hip prostheses. This short communication presents the use of a new imaging modality, megavoltage cone-beam CT, to complement the regular CT for target definition of prostate cancer treatment of patients with hip replacements.

[Megavoltage cone-beam CT: Recent developments and clinical applications]. / Mégavoltage cone-beam CT: récents développements et applications cliniques pour la radiothérapie conformationnelle avec modulation d'intensité.

The Megavoltage cone-beam (MV CBCT) system consists of a new a-Si flat panel adapted for MV imaging and an integrated workflow application allowing the automatic acquisition of projection images, cone-beam CT image reconstruction, CT to CBCT image registration and couch position adjustment. This provides a 3D patient anatomy volume in the actual treatment position, relative to the treatment isocenter, moments before the dose delivery, that can be tightly aligned to the planning CT, allowing verification and correction of the patient position, detection of anatomical changes and dose calculation. In this paper, we present the main advantages and performance of this MV CBCT system and summarize the different clinical applications. Examples of the image-guided treatment process from the acquisition of the MV CBCT scan to the correction of the couch position and dose delivery will be presented for spinal and lung lesions and for head and neck, and prostate cancers.

Evaluation of ultrasound-based prostate localization for image-guided radiotherapy.

To evaluate the use of the ultrasound-based BAT system for daily prostate alignment. Prostate alignments using the BAT system were compared with alignments using radiographic images of implanted radiopaque markers. The latter alignments were used as a reference. The difference between the BAT and marker alignments represents the displacements that would remain if the alignments were done using ultrasonography. The inter-user variability of the contour alignment process was assessed. On the basis of the marker alignments, the initial displacement of the prostate in the AP, superoinferior, and lateral direction was -0.9 +/- 3.9, 0.1 +/- 3.9, and 0.2 +/- 3.4 mm respectively. The directed differences between the BAT and marker alignments in the respective directions were 0.2 +/- 3.7, 2.7 +/- 3.9, and 1.6 +/- 3.1 mm. The occurrence of displacements >/=5 mm was reduced by a factor of two in the AP direction after the BAT system was used. Among eight users, the average range of couch shifts due to contour alignment variability was 7, 7, and 5 mm in the antero-posterior (AP), superoinferior, and lateral direction, respectively. In our study, the BAT alignments were systematically different from the marker alignments in the superoinferior, and lateral directions. The remaining random variability of the prostate position after the ultrasound-based alignment was similar to the initial variability. However, the occurrence of displacements >/=5 mm was reduced in the AP direction. The inter-user variation of the contour alignment process was significant.

[Palliative care: profile of medical practice in the Quebec city region]. / Les soins palliatifs. Profil de pratique des médecins de la région de Québec.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the palliative care provided by physicians in the Quebec city region and to identify factors that affect its delivery. DESIGN: Mailed survey. SETTING: Quebec city region. PARTICIPANTS: General practitioners in active clinical practice. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Physicians' personal and professional characteristics and their palliative care practice (volume of work, source of requests for follow-up care, place of delivery of care, resources used, difficulties, encountered). RESULTS: Of the 476 physicians (67%) who responded to our survey, 295 (62%) provided palliative care. Of these, 70% saw no more than two patients requiring palliative care per month, and 55% devoted no more than 2 hours per week to this aspect of patient care. Most (76%) provided palliative care in a variety of settings (private office, home, institution). Home care teams working out of local community health centres are the resource physicians drew upon most frequently (69%). The main difficulties encountered were a lack of clinical expertise, scheduling home care, and providing patients and families with emotional support. CONCLUSION: Most physicians in the Quebec city region provided palliative care occasionally. This care could be improved by removing various logistical and professional barriers.

Analysis of aqueous humor obtained from normal eyes of llamas and alpacas.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate composition of aqueous humor obtained from normal eyes of llamas (Lama glama) and alpacas (Lama pacos). SAMPLE POPULATION: Aqueous humor obtained from 10 male llamas and 10 male alpacas. PROCEDURE: All animals had normal eyes, as determined by ocular examination. Aqueous humor samples were obtained via paracentesis of the anterior chamber of animals that were heavily sedated. Chemical analysis included measurement of concentrations of sodium, potassium, magnesium, chloride, bicarbonate, phosphorus, and glucose as well as osmolality and pH. RESULTS: With the exception of potassium concentrations, values for aqueous humor composition did not differ significantly between llamas and alpacas. Mean +/- SD values for llamas and alpacas, respectively, were: sodium, 154.7 +/- 2.1 and 152.7 +/- 2.1 mEq/L; potassium, 5.3 +/- 0.4 and 4.6 +/- 0.4 mEq/L; magnesium, 1.8 +/- 0.1 and 1.7 +/- 0.1 mg/dl; chloride, 130.0 +/- 1.6 and 127.0 +/- 3.3 mEq/L; bicarbonate, 19.2 +/- 1.5 and 20.2 +/- 2.3 mEq/L; phosphorous, 2.7 +/- 0.3 and 2.5 +/- 0.4 mg/dl; glucose, 80.3 +/- 3.9 and 80.8 +/- 7.3 mg/dl; total protein, 29.0 +/- 8.6 and 31.5 +/- 10.1 mg/dl; and osmolality, 305.8 +/- 11.8 and 306.2 +/- 4.9 mOsm. The pH ranged from 7.5 to 8.0 for both species. Potassium concentrations were significantly higher in llamas than alpacas. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Except for potassium, composition of aqueous humor did not differ significantly between llamas and alpacas. Aqueous humor composition of llamas and alpacas is similar to that of other species that have been examined.

[Collaboration between family physicians and home care professionals. Is it possible?]. / Collaborations entre les médecins de famille et les équipes de maintien à domicile. Est-ce possible?

OBJECTIVE: To describe perceptions of physicians and home care professionals working in local community service centres (CLSCs) with respect to collaboration on home care follow up, and to identify conditions likely to help or hinder cooperation. DESIGN: Descriptive study using individual and group interviews. SETTING: Areas served by three CLSCs in the Quebec city region. PARTICIPANTS: Forty-five general practitioners with large home care practices and coordinators and representatives of CLSC home care teams. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Perceptions of physicians and home care professionals with respect to interprofessional cooperation on and barriers to home care follow up. RESULTS: Most participants thought that cooperation would be beneficial to complex case management and continuity of follow-up care. In practice, however, cooperation is hindered by differences in medical practice and home care team service delivery and in methods of remuneration, and lack of knowledge of the other field of practice. CONCLUSION: All participants recognized the importance of cooperation. This study did not reveal any real integration of medical and CLSC home care services. Efforts must be made to identify the strategies most conducive to improving interprofessional cooperation.

Sexually transmitted diseases of older persons in Washington State.

BACKGROUND: Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) in persons older than 50 years are rarely studied because STDs are more common in young people. Understanding the epidemiology of STDs in older persons is important for reducing STD morbidity and for improving STD care. GOAL: To understand the epidemiology of STDs in older persons. METHODS: Washington State's STD surveillance data from 1992 to 1998 were analyzed to describe the burden of STDs and source of care for these diseases in older persons. RESULTS: From 1992 to 1998, 1535 episodes of STDs were reported for 50- to 80-year-olds in Washington State, accounting for 1.3% of all reported STDs. The most common STDs were nongonococcal urethritis in men and genital herpes in women. As compared with younger persons, older individuals more frequently sought care at private clinics and had symptoms at the time of the clinic visit. CONCLUSIONS: Sexually transmitted diseases are reported among older persons, although at lower rates than among younger persons. Services for STD and counseling regarding safe sex should be available to persons of all ages.

Repeat Chlamydia trachomatis infection in women: analysis through a surveillance case registry in Washington State, 1993-1998.

Repeat infections with Chlamydia trachomatis are associated with increased risk for long-term sequelae. The authors analyzed the frequency and predictors of repeat chlamydial infection by using a population-based chlamydia registry in Washington State and evaluated whether women would seek care at the same clinic for repeat infections. Among 32,698 women with an appropriately treated initial chlamydial infection during 1993-1998, 15% developed one or more repeat infections during a mean follow-up time of 3.4 years. Among women less than age 20 years at the time of initial infection, 6% were reinfected by 6 months, 11% by 1 year, and 17% by 2 years. Young age was the strongest predictor for one and two or more repeat infections after controlling for the length of follow-up and other variables. Only 36% of the repeat infections were diagnosed at the same clinical setting as the initial infection, and 50% were diagnosed at the same type of clinic. Adolescent girls had the least consistency in the source of care for chlamydia. This study suggests that efforts to prevent repeat chlamydial infection in young women remain an urgent public health priority and that the burden of repeat infection may be substantially higher than estimates from clinic-based studies.

[Delivery of home health care. Survey of the Quebec region]. / La prestation de soins médicaux à domicile. Sondage dans la région du Québec.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the characteristics of home health care delivered by general practitioners and to identify the conditions that facilitate or hinder development of this practice. DESIGN: Mailed survey. SETTING: Quebec city region. PARTICIPANTS: General practitioners in private practice, family practice units, community health centres, or hospitals. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: A self-administered questionnaire was used to gather information on volume of home care provided, characteristics of clients and visits, methods of follow up, and factors that promoted or hindered home care. RESULTS: Of the 487 physicians surveyed, 58.1% (283) made housecalls to a clientele consisting mainly of elderly patients (87.6%): 42% saw fewer than five patients per week, and 31% spent 2 hours or less per week on housecalls. Close to two thirds (64%) devoted 15 to 30 minutes to these visits, and 90.2% said they used community health centres for assessment or home follow up of their patients. Difficulties with scheduling and methods of remuneration reportedly hampered development of this practice. CONCLUSION: Home care practice is widespread around Quebec city, but represents only a small portion of the clinical work of many GPs.

Pressure-time curve predicts minimally injurious ventilatory strategy in an isolated rat lung model.

BACKGROUND: We tested the hypothesis that the pressure-time (P-t) curve during constant flow ventilation can be used to set a noninjurious ventilatory strategy. METHODS: In an isolated, nonperfused, lavaged model of acute lung injury, tidal volume and positive end-expiratory pressure were set to obtain: (1) a straight P-t curve (constant compliance, minimal stress); (2) a downward concavity in the P-t curve (increasing compliance, low volume stress); and (3) an upward concavity in the P-t curve (decreasing compliance, high volume stress). The P-t curve was fitted to: P = a. tb +c, where b describes the shape of the curve, b = 1 describes a straight P-t curve, b < 1 describes a downward concavity, and b > 1 describes an upward concavity. After 3 h, lungs were analyzed for histologic evidence of pulmonary damage and lavage concentration of inflammatory mediators. Ventilator-induced lung injury occurred when injury score and cytokine concentrations in the ventilated lungs were higher than those in 10 isolated lavaged rats kept statically inflated for 3 h with an airway pressure of 4 cm H2O. RESULTS: The threshold value for coefficient b that discriminated best between lungs with and without histologic and inflammatory evidence of ventilator-induced lung injury (receiver-operating characteristic curve) ranged between 0.90-1.10. For such threshold values, the sensitivity of coefficient b to identify noninjurious ventilatory strategy was 1.00. A significant relation (P < 0.001) between values of coefficient b and injury score, interleukin-6, and macrophage inflammatory protein-2 was found. CONCLUSIONS: The predictive power of coefficient b to predict noninjurious ventilatory strategy in a model of acute lung injury is high.

Intraocular pressure in normal llamas (Lama glama) and alpacas (Lama pacos).

OBJECTIVE: To determine the mean intraocular pressure in llamas (Lama glama) and alpacas (Lama pacos) using applanation tonometry.Animals studied: Ten llamas and 10 alpacas.Procedures: Intraocular pressure (IOP) was measured with a Tono-Pentrade mark XL (Mentor Ophthalmics, Inc., Norwell, MA, USA). Three values, with 5% variance, were recorded for each eye. Least-squares means were determined for IOP for each eye of llamas and alpacas. Controlling for age, differences between left and right eye were analyzed using ANOVA. Two age groups were established, less than 5 years and greater than 5 years. The effect of age on IOP within each group was analyzed by linear regression. Probability values of less than 0.05 were considered significant. RESULTS: Comparison of mean IOP between right (n = 20) and left eyes (n = 20), independent of species type, showed no differences in IOPs for llamas and alpacas. Mean IOP declined with increasing age in llamas and alpacas. Mean IOPs for 20 eyes in 10 llamas was 16.96 +/- 3.51 mmHg. Mean IOP for 20 eyes in 10 alpacas was 16.14 +/- 3.74 mmHg. Mean IOP for all eyes (n = 40), independent of species, was 16.55 +/- 3.55 mmHg. The range of IOP in normal llamas and alpacas within 2 SD (95% of the population) was 14.89+/-18.21 mmHg. CONCLUSIONS: There was no significant difference in IOP between alpacas and llamas. Mean IOP in both species decreased with increased age.

The Impact of Occupational Therapy on a Child's Playfulness.

The constant changing health care system has made it imperative for occupational therapists (OTs) to examine the effectiveness of treatment interventions with children. Few studies exist examining play as the desired outcome of the intervention. Previous studies in occupational therapy (OT) have focused on the motor aspects of play in children (Anderson, Hinojosa & Strauch, 1987; Florey, 1981; Morrison, Bundy, & Fisher, 1991). In these studies, the researchers hypothesize that improving motor skills will improve play skills in children. OTs frequently evaluate play using the Preschool Play Scale (PPS) (Bledsoe & Shephard, 1982; Knox, 1997) which provides a developmental age for play skills. Therapists also use developmental assessments designed to examine the skills used during play (Bundy, 1991). Skills used in play are important but fail to look at a child's approach or attitude during play. A child's approach to activities of play is termed "playfulness" (Bundy, 1997). The Test of Playfulness (TOP) (Bundy, 1997) was developed to measure this construct. The TOP provides information that can assist therapists working with children in designing measurable playfulness goals. This study examined the playfulness of four children who received OT intervention specifically designed to improve play behaviors in comparison to four children who did not receive this intervention. The results provide therapists with information and insight for treating children with play deficits. This information will help therapists design effective treatment to increase playfulness in children.