COVID-19 guidelines for optometry and optical services post-lockdown.

The COVID-19 pandemic has caused disruption in everyone's lives globally. Optometrists, being primary health care professionals are at a higher risk of infection in their practices during these testing times. Optometrists and optical store owners need practically implementable guidelines as lockdown gets lifted in various parts of our country. As these practices gear up to provide eye examination and vision correction to people, they need to take necessary precautions to avoid any cross contaminations. Optometry Council of India guidelines were circulated among optometry and optical associations and among experts in various optometry specialty. A consensus among various bodies were arrived. These guidelines provide recommendation for optical and optometry practices.

The patient health questionnaire-9: validation among patients with glaucoma.

BACKGROUND: Depression and anxiety are two common normal responses to a chronic disease such as glaucoma. This study analysed the measurement properties of the depression screening instrument - Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9) using Rasch analysis to determine if it can be used as a measure. METHODS: In this hospital-based cross-sectional study, the PHQ-9 was administered to primary glaucoma adults attending a glaucoma clinic of a tertiary eye care centre, South India. All patients underwent a comprehensive clinical evaluation. Patient demographics and sub-type of glaucoma were abstracted from the medical record. Rasch analysis was used to investigate the following properties of the PHQ-9: behaviour of the response categories, measurement precision (assessed using person separation reliability, PSR; minimum recommended value 0.80), unidimensionality (assessed using item fit [0.7-1.3] and principal components analysis of residuals), and targeting. RESULTS: 198 patients (mean age ± standard deviation  = 59.83±12.34 years; 67% male) were included. The native PHQ-9 did not fit the Rasch model. The response categories showed disordered thresholds which became ordered after category reorganization. Measurement precision was below acceptable limits (0.62) and targeting was sub-optimal (-1.27 logits). Four items misfit that were deleted iteratively following which a set of five items fit the Rasch model. However measurement precision failed to improve and targeting worsened further (-1.62 logits). CONCLUSIONS: The PHQ-9, in its present form, provides suboptimal assessment of depression in patients with glaucoma in India. Therefore, there is a need to develop a new depression instrument for our glaucoma population. A superior strategy would be to use the item bank for depression but this will also need to be validated in glaucoma patients before deciding its utility.

Rasch validation of the PHQ-9 in people with visual impairment in South India.

BACKGROUND: The Patient-Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9) is a widely used screening instrument for depression. Recently, its properties as a measure were investigated using Rasch analysis in an Australian population with visual impairment (VI) and it was demonstrated to possess excellent measurement properties, but the response scale required shortening (modified PHQ-9). However, further validation was recommended to substantiate its use with the growing population of VI. Therefore, we aimed to use Rasch analysis to evaluate the measurement properties of the modified PHQ-9 in an Indian population with VI. METHODS: 303 patients with VI (mean age 40.2 years; 71% male) referred to Vision Rehabilitation Centres were administered the PHQ-9 by trained interviewer. Rasch analysis was used to investigate the psychometric properties of the modified PHQ-9. RESULTS: Rasch analysis showed good fit to the model, no misfitting items and an acceptable person separation reliability (0.82). Dimensionality testing supported combining 9 items to create a total score. Targeting was sub-optimal (-1.30 logits); more difficult items are needed. One item ('trouble falling asleep') showed notable differential item functioning, DIF (1.18 logits) by duration of VI. LIMITATIONS: The generalisability of these results might be restricted to patients with VI presenting to a tertiary eye care centre. CONCLUSIONS: Except for DIF, the performance of the modified PHQ-9 is consistent with that of the original, albeit in a different cultural context (Indian population with VI). Clinicians/researchers can readily use the modified PHQ-9 without formal training in Rasch procedures given the provision of ready-to-use spreadsheets that convert raw to Rasch-scaled scores. However the conversions will apply only if the sample being tested is similar to that of the present study.

Is utility-based quality of life in adults affected by glaucoma?

PURPOSE: We evaluated the utility values (UVs), using the time trade off (TTO) technique, associated with primary glaucoma and varying degrees of visual field (VF) loss. METHODS: In this cross-sectional study, 198 adults (mean age, 59.8 years) with primary glaucoma were recruited from the glaucoma clinic of a tertiary center in Hyderabad, South India. Each patient underwent comprehensive glaucoma evaluation, and completed the utility (TTO) and Glaucoma Quality of Life-15 questionnaires (Rasch version, Glaucoma Activity Limitation [GAL]-10). Better mean deviation (MD, using Humphrey Field Analyzer program 24-2) between two eyes was used to classify participants into mild, moderate, and severe VF loss groups. Utilities (range, 0.0-1.0) derived by TTO technique (lifetime traded against perfect vision) and interval level Rasch scores of GAL-10 were used for analyses. RESULTS: Mean UV was 0.81 (95% confidence interval [CI], 0.78-0.84); that is, a decrease in quality of life (QoL) of 19%. Of the subjects, 59% were willing to trade lifetime in return of perfect vision; those willing to trade were significantly younger with poorer acuity in the worse-seeing eye. In univariate and multivariate analysis, severe VF loss in the worse eye was associated with lower UV (ß = -0.108; 95% CI, -0.201 to -0.014; P = 0.02). CONCLUSIONS: Our results show that primary glaucoma in adults causes substantial decrease in UVs (and QoL thereof), and is highly dependent on the severity of VF loss in the worse eye.

Vision and Quality of Life Index: validation of the Indian version using Rasch analysis.

PURPOSE: A multi-attribute utility instrument (MAUI) consists of a descriptive system in which the items and responses seek information about a concept of the universe of health-related quality of life (QoL), and responses to these items then are weighted and combined to produce the index. To our knowledge, the 6-item Vision and Quality of Life Index (VisQoL) is the only available vision-related MAUI, developed and validated in Australia, specifically for visually impaired (VI) populations. To our knowledge, the psychometric properties of the VisQoL have not yet been investigated in an Indian VI sample; this was the aim of our study. METHODS: The Indian VisQoL was administered to 349 VI adults face-to-face by a trained interviewer at the Vision Rehabilitation Centres of a tertiary eye care facility, South India. Rasch analysis was used to assess the psychometric properties. RESULTS: Rescoring was necessary for all except one item before ordered thresholds were obtained. All items fit the Rasch model and unidimensionality was confirmed. Person separation was acceptable (2.01), indicating that the instrument can discriminate among three strata of participants" vision-related QoL (VRQoL). The VisQoL items were targeted substantially to the participants" VRQoL (-0.69 logits). One item ("ability to have friendships") demonstrated large differential item functioning by work status; working participants reported the item to be more difficult (-1.13 logits) relative to other items when compared to the nonworking participants. CONCLUSIONS: The 6-item Indian VisQoL satisfies unidimensional Rasch model expectations in VI patients. Disordering of response categories was evident; replication is required before a common rescoring option should be considered.

Utility values in the visually impaired: comparing time-trade off and VisQoL.

PURPOSE: Visual impairment (VI) negatively affects quality of life (QoL). Utilities represent a way of measuring the QoL impact associated with a particular health state, like VI, and are also useful in economic evaluations of health care interventions. Utilities can be determined either directly or indirectly. Here we determine whether the Vision and Quality of Life Index, VisQoL (indirect approach), is acceptable to use in patients with VI in an urban setting in South India; whether the VisQoL utility values, derived from an Australian sample of both visually impaired and normally sighted participants, demonstrate agreement (if any) with direct utilities, determined by time trade-off (TTO), from visually impaired South Indian patients; and determine the relationship between utilities and self-reported visual disability. METHODS: Three hundred forty-nine adults with VI were administered the two-item TTO item, six-item VisQoL, and the 16-item Andhra Pradesh Eye Disease-Visual Function Questionnaire (APEDS-VFQ) in a face-to-face interview. The VisQoL utilities were derived from the utility scoring algorithm. Rasch-scaled scores of the APEDS-VFQ were obtained using the conversion scores sheets. Agreement between TTO and utilities VisQoL was assessed using the Bland-Altman method. RESULTS: All participants (response rate, 100%) completed the VisQoL as compared with 72% for the TTO. There was no statistically significant difference in the mean utilities from the two methods (0.65 ± 0.31 by TTO vs. 0.66 ± 0.27 by VisQoL, p = 0.67). However, the 95% limits of agreement on the Bland-Altman plot were wide (-0.65, 0.67), implying a lack of agreement between the methods. The VisQoL relates relatively strongly with APEDS-VFQ as compared with TTO (TTO vs. APEDS-VFQ, r = -0.23, VisQoL vs. APEDS-VFQ, r = -0.66, z = -6.70; p < 0.001 for both). Older participants, female, and those with less than 12 years of education had lower utilities. CONCLUSIONS: The direct (TTO) and indirect (VisQoL) methods of utility evaluation tend to disagree in our patients with VI. Given the high completion rates of the VisQoL as compared with the TTO, the VisQoL may be a suitable alternative for utility assessment in an Indian population.

Assessment of the impact of keratoconus on vision-related quality of life.

PURPOSE: We determined if the Impact of Vision Impairment (IVI) is a valid questionnaire to measure the vision-related quality of life (VRQoL) in keratoconus patients, and investigated if the VRQoL varied with disease severity in this sample. METHODS: WE RECRUITED 160 CONSECUTIVE BILATERAL KERATOCONUS PATIENTS (MEAN AGE 23.3 YEARS, 63% MALE) FROM AN INDIAN TERTIARY EYE CARE CENTER. PARTICIPANTS UNDERWENT A CLINICAL EXAMINATION AND COMPLETED THE IVI. PARTICIPANTS WERE DIVIDED INTO THREE GROUPS BASED ON THE AVERAGE OF THE STEEP KERATOMETRY (K) READINGS: mild (average Sim K < 45 diopters [D]), moderate (average Sim K 45-52 D), and severe (average Sim K > 52 D). Rasch analysis was used to validate the IVI and the VRQoL scores thus obtained were compared across the disease groups. RESULTS: THE MAJORITY (63%) OF PATIENTS HAD SEVERE, WHILE THE REMAINDER (37%) HAD MODERATE KERATOCONUS. RASCH ANALYSIS DEMONSTRATED THE VALIDITY OF THE IVI TO ASSESS VRQOL THROUGH TWO SUBSCALES: vision-specific functioning (VF) and emotional well-being (EWB). There was no significant difference in VF (mean change -0.16, P = 0.55) and EWB scores (mean change -0.32, P = 0.23) between moderate and severe keratoconus groups. CONCLUSIONS: The revised IVI subscales have interval-level measurement properties, which support their suitability to measure VRQoL in this keratoconus sample. Patients with moderate or severe keratoconus had similar, but higher VRQoL scores as assessed by the revised IVI subscales, indicating lack of impact of the disease on their VRQoL. However, this does not exclude the possibility of finding an impact in other populations.

The second version of the L. V. Prasad-functional vision questionnaire.

PURPOSE: The L. V. Prasad-Functional Vision Questionnaire (LVP-FVQ) was developed using Rasch analysis to assess self-reported difficulties in performing daily tasks in school children with visual impairment (VI) in India. However, the LVP-FVQ has psychometric problems of inadequate measurement precision and lack of detailed assessment of dimensionality. Furthermore, items pertaining to use of technology are lacking. The aim of this study was to present the development and validation of the second version of LVP-FVQ (LVP-FVQ II). METHODS: Development of LVP-FVQ II involved extracting items from other similar questionnaires (albeit developed for Western populations) and focus group discussions of children with VI and their parents that resulted in a 32-item pilot questionnaire. Overall, six items from the LVP-FVQ were retained. The questionnaire underwent pilot testing in 25 such children, following which a 27-item LVP-FVQ II emerged, and this was administered to 150 children with VI. Response to each item was rated on a three-category scale. Rasch analysis was used to validate the LVP-FVQ II. RESULTS: Rating scale was used by participants as was intended to. Four mobility-related items required deletion, as these did not contribute toward measurement of a single construct, indicating a secondary dimension. Deletion of the four items resulted in the 23-item unidimensional LVP-FVQ II, with good measurement precision, effective targeting of item difficulty to participant ability, and lack of notable differential item functioning. The LVP-FVQ II has high reliability, indicating that it is effectively able to discriminate between visual disability of school children in India, and is valid across age, gender, duration of VI, and location of residence. CONCLUSIONS: Given the superior measurement properties and the interval-level scores, the LVP-FVQ II appears to offer advantages over LVP-FVQ in assessment of difficulties in performing daily tasks in this population. It can be adapted for use in other developing countries.

Andhra Pradesh Eye Disease Study - Visual Function Questionnaire: further improvements in psychometric properties using Rasch analysis.

PURPOSE: Previous Rasch analysis of the Andhra Pradesh Eye Disease Study-Visual Function Questionnaire (APEDS-VFQ) lacked comprehensiveness, specifically, dimensionality (whether it measures single/multiple constructs). Therefore, using the Rasch model this study provides a detailed assessment of psychometric properties of the APEDS-VFQ. METHODS: A total of 351 visually impaired adults (mean age, 43.3 years) were verbally administered the APEDS-VFQ. Rasch analysis was used to assess the psychometric properties of the instrument. RESULTS: Participants could distinguish only three categories of difficulty, so response categories were reduced from five to three. A single item ("reading small prints in newspaper/magazines", infit mean square 1.54) misfit the model. The overall pattern of fit statistics for item and person measures suggested that the underlying construct (visual ability) is not unidimensional. When the items were grouped into subsets based on functional requirements (resolution, contrast sensitivity, illumination and peripheral vision) and separate person measures were estimated for each of these domains, the first principal component contained the visual ability and accounted for 72% of the variance. Item measure distributions could be divided into 18 strata, and item-separation reliability was 0.99. Person measures could be divided into three statistically distinct strata and the person-separation reliability was 0.81. CONCLUSIONS: The APEDS-VFQ is a precise measure of visual ability in visually impaired adults in India. Similar to other visual function questionnaires developed for the Western population, our results demonstrate that visual ability is a two-factor composite latent variable; one dimension heavily influences reading and the other most heavily influences peripheral vision (mobility).

Impact of glaucoma on visual functioning in Indians.

PURPOSE: To evaluate the impact of glaucoma on visual functioning in Indians. METHODS: Patients attending the glaucoma service who had undergone a comprehensive glaucoma evaluation were recruited. Better mean deviation (MD, using Humphrey Field Analyzer program 24-2) between two eyes was used to classify participants into mild, moderate, and severe visual field (VF) loss groups. Participants were administered the Glaucoma Quality of Life-15 (GQL-15) questionnaire. Rasch analysis was used to validate the GQL-15 and its four subscales. Linear regression was used to determine associations between GQL-15 scores and VF loss after adjusting for sociodemographic variables. RESULTS: A total of 198 patients (mean age ± SD, 59.8 ± 12.3 years; 67% male) were recruited. Participants with severe VF loss (39%) followed by mild loss (35%) comprised the largest group. Rasch analysis resulted in a 10-item reliable and valid questionnaire: the Glaucoma Activity Limitation-10 (GAL-10). Although a single subscale, "peripheral vision," met requirements of the Rasch model, it could not be preserved in the GAL-10. In multivariate analyses, the middle-income group (compared with higher income) and severe VF-loss (compared with mild VF-loss) participants reported significantly poorer functioning on GAL-10 ([ß = 0.84; 95% confidence interval (CI), 0.16-1.52; P = 0.02] and [ß = 1.19; 95% CI, 0.61-1.78; P < 0.000], respectively). None of these associations were, however, clinically significant. CONCLUSIONS: Glaucoma patients in India, especially those with severe VF loss, face significant challenges in performing daily tasks and in mobility. It is important to prevent progression such that activity limitation is minimized in glaucoma patients.

National Eye Institute Visual Function Questionnaire or Indian Vision Function Questionnaire for visually impaired: a conundrum.

PURPOSE: Both the long form visual functioning scale (LFVFS(39)) and visual functioning scale (VFS) are measures of visual functioning (VF) that represent the Rasch-scaled versions of the NEI-VFQ(39) and the Indian vision function questionnaire (IND-VFQ), respectively. The objectives of this study were to investigate if the 15-item LFVFS(39) and 13-item VFS of the IND-VFQ meet the assumptions of the Rasch model and measure the same construct, VF, in an Indian visually impaired (VI) population. METHODS: Data from 120 VI adults administered both instruments concurrently, were fitted to the Rasch measurement model to demonstrate that each instrument satisfies the assumptions of the model (including unidimensionality by principal components analysis); and both instruments can be cocalibrated onto a single underlying continuum of VF. RESULTS: Both instruments required category reorganization for optimal rating scale functioning and possessed similar measurement precision (person separation = 2.76). Separate analysis of each instrument (eigenvalues, 2.3 and 1.9 for LFVFS(39) and VFS of IND-VFQ, respectively) and the pooled 28-item analyses (eigenvalue, 2.8) satisfied the assumptions of the Rasch model, including unidimensionality. Furthermore, all items fit in the separate and pooled analyses. Separate item and person measures for each instrument correlated strongly with estimates from the pooled data (r > 0.9 for all, P < 0.0001). CONCLUSIONS; Both the LFVFS(39) and VFS of the IND-VFQ measure the same construct, VF, and with equal measurement precision in an Indian VI population. Both instruments can be calibrated onto a single metric, thereby, enabling a comparison of their measurement range of VF.

Rasch analysis of the Indian vision function questionnaire.

AIM: To investigate the psychometric properties of the three scales (general functioning, psychosocial impact, visual symptoms) of the Indian vision function questionnaire (IND-VFQ) using the Rasch measurement model. METHODS: 236 visually impaired patients referred to vision rehabilitation centres were administered the 33-item IND-VFQ. Rasch analysis was used to investigate the scales for the following properties: precision by person separation (ie, discrimination between strata of patient ability, recommended minimum value 2.0), unidimensionality (ie, measurement of a single construct) and targeting (ie, matching of item difficulty to patient ability). RESULTS: Only the general functioning scale possessed adequate measurement precision (person separation 3.49). However, it lacked unidimensionality as some items did not contribute towards the measurement of a single construct indicating a secondary dimension. This comprised seven mobility items, which formed a separate valid subscale with good targeting (-0.57 logits). Deleting these items restored unidimensionality but a misfitting item required removal. Following this the 13 items fit and were visual functioning related. However, targeting was suboptimal (-1.13 logits). CONCLUSIONS: The general functioning scale of the IND-VFQ consists of two separate unidimensional constructs: visual functioning and mobility. Both these Rasch scaled versions with good psychometric properties are effective tools for the assessment of visually impaired patients in India.