A 0.1% L-Menthol Mouth Swill in Elite Male Rugby Players Has Different Effects in Forwards and Backs.

PURPOSE: Menthol mouth swills can improve endurance performance in the heat, which is attributed to attenuations in nonthermally derived thermal sensation (TS) and perception of effort. However, research in elite team-sport athletes is absent. Therefore, this study investigated the performance and TS responses to a 0.1% menthol mouth rinse (MR) or placebo (PLA) among elite male rugby union players. METHOD: Twenty-seven (15 Forwards and 12 Backs) elite male Super Rugby players completed two 3-minute 15-a-side rugby-specific conditioning blocks, with MR or PLA provided at the start of training (baseline), at the start of each 3-minute block (swill 1 [S1] and swill 2 [S2]), and at the end of training (swill 3 [S3]). TS was assessed using the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers 9-point Analog Sensation Scale after each swill and at baseline (preconditioning block). Acceptability was measured after baseline swill and S3 using a 5-question Likert scale. Physical performance was measured throughout training using global positioning system metrics. RESULTS: MR attenuated TS from baseline to S1 (P = .003, SD = 1.01) and S2 (P = .002, SD = 1.09) in Forwards only, compared with PLA. Acceptability was higher only for Forwards in MR versus PLA at baseline (P = .003, SD = 1.3) and S3 (P = .004, SD = 0.75). MR had no effect on physical performance metrics (P > .05). CONCLUSION: MR attenuated the rise in TS with higher acceptability at S1 and S3 (in Forwards only) with no effect on selected physical performance metrics. Longer-duration exercise (eg, a match) in hot-humid conditions eliciting markedly increased body temperatures could theoretically allow favorable changes in TS to enhance performance-these postulations warrant experimental investigation.

Improving Mental Performance in an Athletic Population with the Use of Arepa®, a Blackcurrant Based Nootropic Drink: A Randomized Control Trial.

A range of dietary bioactive ingredients have claimed to improve mental clarity and reduce fatigue, including blackcurrant, pine bark, and l-theanine. These active ingredients provide a good source of dietary polyphenols which could be useful in reducing mental fatigue in a sports setting. The aim of the investigation was to test the effect of Arepa® a blackcurrant-based nootropic-drink also containing pine-bark and l-theanine (BC+), on mental clarity in a sport setting. Twenty-three rugby league players completed a cross-over design, randomized, double-blind, controlled trial. Intervention and control phases lasted 7 days, with a washout in between. Cognition was assessed pre and post intervention following a standardized training session. Our study found the total score, accuracy, and average time per response scores improved significantly more after drinking the BC+ drink (p = 0.001, 0.003, and 0.043 respectively). The BC+ improved the perception that participants were reliable (p = 0.02) and less distracted (p = 0.03), while placebo supplementation increased participant perception they could control their nervousness (p = 0.03). Thematic analysis of post-trial questionnaire indicated participants found the BC+ sour, most reported no side effects, and opinion on which drink was more effective was not unanimous. The results indicate that the BC+ drink may be useful for athletes.

Hepcidin and iron: novel findings for elite female rugby Sevens players.

BACKGROUND: Iron deficiency is a common deficiency disease worldwide with athletes at increased risk. METHODS: A proposed new mechanism of exercise-induced iron deficiency in athletes involves the iron-regulatory hormone hepcidin, however, there is limited information on this amongst elite athletes. This study describes iron status in elite female rugby Sevens players. RESULTS: Blood samples were collected at the start and mid-season and analyzed for serum iron, serum ferritin (SF), soluble transferring receptor (sTfR), high sensitivity C-reactive Protein (hsCRP) and hepcidin. Of the 17 players 18% were iron deficient (SF<30 µg/L) with 29-35% of players with sub-optimal iron stores at some point during the study (SF<45 µg/L). Serum hepcidin was strongly correlated with SF (r=0.61, P=0.0001). CONCLUSIONS: Some elite female rugby Sevens players have sub-optimal iron stores over the course of a season.

Dietary Intakes Differ by Body Composition Goals: An Observational Study of Professional Rugby Union Players in New Zealand.

Preseason in rugby union is a period of intensive training where players undergo conditioning to prepare for the competitive season. In some cases, this includes modifying body composition through weight gain or fat loss. This study aimed to describe the macronutrient intakes of professional rugby union players during pre-season training. It was hypothesized that players required to gain weight would have a higher energy, carbohydrate and protein intake compared to those needing to lose weight. Twenty-three professional rugby players completed 3 days of dietary assessment and their sum of eight skinfolds were assessed. Players were divided into three groups by the team coaches and medical staff: weight gain, weight maintain and weight loss. Mean energy intakes were 3,875 ± 907 kcal·d-1 (15,965 ± 3,737 kJ·d-1) (weight gain 4,532 ± 804 kcal·d-1; weight maintain 3,825 ± 803 kcal·d-1; weight loss 3,066 ± 407 kcal·d-1) and carbohydrate intakes were 3.7 ± 1.2 g·kg-1·d-1 (weight gain 4.8 ± 0.9 g.kg-1·d-1; weight maintain 2.8 ± 0.7 g·kg-1·d-1; weight loss 2. 6 ± 0.7 g·kg-1·d-1). The energy and carbohydrate intakes are similar to published intakes among rugby union players. There were significant differences in energy intake and the percent of energy from protein between the weight gain and the weight loss group.

Body Image Among Elite Rugby Union Players.

Gibson, C, Hindle, C, McLay-Cooke, R, Slater, J, Brown, R, Smith, B, Baker, D, Healey, P, and Black, K. Body image among elite rugby union players. J Strength Cond Res 33(8): 2217-2222, 2019-There is limited information on the risk of eating disorders (EDs) and body image of elite male athletes. However, research studies suggest that there are some athletes who have poor body image and they may be at increased risk of developing EDs. Therefore, the current study investigated risk of EDs, body image, and the relationship with age, in elite rugby union players during their preseason training period. This cross-sectional study was undertaken at the start of the preseason among elite rugby union players in New Zealand. Twenty-six professional rugby union players completed a 49-item questionnaire on body image and disordered eating. A "body image score" was calculated from questionnaire subscales including "drive for thinness," "bulimia," and "body dissatisfaction," with total scores above 20 indicative of poor body image. Body image scores varied from 8 to 39 out of a possible 0-100. Disordered eating behaviors were reported, including binge eating at least once a week (15%, n = 4/26), pathogenic weight control use (4%, n = 1/26), and avoidance of certain foods (77%, n = 20/26). There was a statistically significant inverse association between the bulimia subscale and age (p = 0.034). At the start of the preseason training period, many elite rugby union players experience disturbances in body image. The prevalence of disordered eating behaviors is of concern, and needs to be minimized due to the negative impact on health and performance. A focus on assessment and education of younger male rugby players may be required to reduce disordered eating patterns.

Effects of Chronic Cold-Water Immersion in Elite Rugby Players.

PURPOSE: Although the acute effects of cold-water immersion (CWI) have been widely investigated, research analyzing the effects of CWI over a chronic period in highly trained athletes is scarce. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of CWI during an intense 3-wk preseason phase in elite rugby athletes. METHODS: A total of 23 elite male rugby union athletes were randomized to either CWI (10 min at 10°C, n = 10) or a passive recovery control (CON, n = 13) during 3 wk of high-volume training. Athletes were exposed to either CWI or CON after each training day (12 d in total). Running loads, conditioning, and gym sessions were kept the same between groups. Measures of countermovement jump, perceived muscle soreness, and wellness were obtained twice a week, and saliva samples for determining cortisol and interleukin-6 were collected once per week. RESULTS: Although no significant differences were observed between CWI and CON for any measure, CWI resulted in lower fatigue markers throughout the study as demonstrated by the moderate effects on muscle soreness (d = 0.58-0.91) and interleukin-6 (d = -0.83) and the small effects (d = 0.23-0.38) on countermovement jump in comparison with CON. CONCLUSIONS: CWI may provide some beneficial effect by reducing fatigue and soreness during an intense 3-wk training phase in elite rugby athletes.

Social Media as a Nutrition Resource for Athletes: A Cross-Sectional Survey.

Social media contains a wealth of nutrition information and proposes a cost-effective, highly engaging platform to deliver nutrition information to athletes. This study used an online questionnaire to determine whether New Zealand athletes are using social media as a source of nutrition information and to understand perceptions of social media as a nutrition resource. Quantitative data were analyzed using t tests, chi-squared tests, and logistic regression analysis. Inductive thematic analysis was adopted for the qualitative data. From the 306 athletes who completed the questionnaire, 65% reported social media use for nutrition purposes in the past 12 months. Social media use was predicted by both athlete status and gender. Female athletes were more likely to have used social media for nutrition purposes (odds ratio = 2.7, 95% confidence interval [1.52, 4.62], p = .001) than males. Elite athletes were less likely to have used social media for nutrition (odds ratio = 0.44, 95% confidence interval [0.24, 0.83], p = .011) than recreational athletes. Athletes commonly used social media for practical nutrition purposes, including recipes and information about restaurants/cafes. Perceived advantages of social media as a nutrition resource included ease of access, well-presented information, personal connectedness, and information richness. Athletes' primary concern for obtaining nutrition information from social media was information unreliability.

Acute Effect of Oral N-Acetylcysteine on Muscle Soreness and Exercise Performance in Semi-Elite Rugby Players.

N-acetylcysteine (NAC) supplementation may enhance performance and reduce soreness from acute, repeated-sprint, high-intensity exercise. Our aim was to investigate whether semi-elite rugby union athletes may benefit. In a randomized block design, 17 semi-elite male rugby players were assigned to receive either 1 g oral NAC (n = 8) or placebo (n = 9) for six days. The mean percentage effect of NAC on exercise performance was assessed through completion of a broken bronco exercise test on days 5 and 6 of supplementation. Players self-reported muscle soreness and tolerability to supplements using a modified Muscle Pain and Treatment Satisfaction Questionnaire throughout the supplement duration. NAC produced a likely beneficial performance effect on maximum shuttle sprint time (2.4%; 90% confidence limit ± 4.8%) but was unclear on total time during back-to-back broken bronco tests compared to placebo. NAC had a likely protective effect on subjective muscle soreness during days 1-4 of supplementation (-19% ± 27%) but a very likely harmful effect on days 5 and 6 of supplementation (71% ± 59%). Daily supplementation with 1 g of oral NAC for six days produced no adverse side effects, reduced muscle soreness after one bout of damaging exercise, but increased soreness following the second bout. The performance effects were generally unclear apart from maximal sprint time.

Adding omega-3 fatty acids to a protein-based supplement during pre-season training results in reduced muscle soreness and the better maintenance of explosive power in professional Rugby Union players.

Evidence suggests that omega-3 fatty acid supplementation could reduce muscle soreness and maintain muscle function following eccentric exercise-induced muscle damage. The aim of this applied field study was to investigate the effectiveness of consuming a protein-based supplement containing 1546 mg of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) (551 mg eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and 551 mg docosahexaenoic acid (DHA)) twice daily (FO) compared to a protein-based placebo (P) on muscle soreness, countermovement jump (CMJ) performance and psychological well-being in 20 professional Rugby Union players during 5 weeks of pre-season training. Players completed a 5-point-Likert soreness scale with 5 indicating "no soreness" and a questionnaire assessing fatigue, sleep, stress and mood each morning of training, plus they performed CMJ tests once or twice per week. Data were analysed using magnitude-based inferential statistics and are presented as percent beneficial/trivial/harmful. On day 35, there was a likely (% beneficial/trivial/harmful: 94/5/1) moderate (0.75, standardized mean difference (SMD)) beneficial effect of FO vs. P on the change in lower body muscle soreness compared with day 0 (FO: -3.8 ± 21.7%; P: -19.4 ± 11.2%). There was a likely (92/7/0) moderate (SMD: 0.60) beneficial effect of FO vs. P on CMJ performance (change from baseline to day 35, FO: +4.6 ± 5.9%; P: -3.4 ± 8.6%). From day 20, a moderate beneficial effect of FO on fatigue was observed. In terms of practical relevance, the moderate beneficial effect of adding fish oil to a protein-based supplement on muscle soreness translated into the better maintenance of explosive power in elite Rugby Union players during pre-season training.

Body mass changes during training in elite rugby union: Is a single test of hydration indices reliable?

There is limited research studying fluid and electrolyte balance in rugby union players, and a paucity of information regarding the test-retest reliability. This study describes the fluid balance of elite rugby union players across multiple squads and the reliability of fluid balance measures between two equivalent training sessions. Sixty-one elite rugby players completed a single fluid balance testing session during a game simulation training session. A subsample of 21 players completed a second fluid balance testing session during an equivalent training session. Players were weighed in minimal clothing before and after each training session. Each player was provided with their own drinks which were weighed before and after each training session. More players gained body weight (9 (14.8%)) during training than lost greater than 2% of their initial body mass (1 (1.6%)). Pre-training body mass and rate of fluid loss were significantly associated (r = 0.318, p = .013). There was a significant correlation between rate of fluid loss in sessions 1 (1.74 ± 0.32 L h-1) and 2 (1.10 ± 0.31 L. h-1), (r = 0.470, p = .032). This could be useful for nutritionists working with rugby squads to identify players with high sweat losses.

Macronutrient Intakes of Male Rugby Union Players: A Review.

Rugby is a worldwide intermittent team sport. Players tend to be heavier than the majority of similar team sport athletes on whom the dietary guidelines have been developed. Therefore, the aim of the current review was to describe the intakes of rugby union players. Article databases were searched up to February 2017 and were included if they were published in English and reported dietary intakes of male rugby union players. Of the research articles identified, energy intakes were lower than two of three studies that reported intakes and expenditure, which would suggest the players were losing weight that is somewhat supported by the decreases in skinfolds seen during preseason. However, it should also be noted that there are errors in both the measurement of energy intakes and expenditure. Carbohydrate intakes ranged from 2.6 to 6.5 g·kg-1·day-1, which is lower than the current relative to body mass recommendations; however, this would not be classed as a low-carbohydrate diet. The consistently low intakes of carbohydrate suggest that these intake levels maybe sufficient for performance, given the players greater body mass or there are errors in the measurements. However, there is currently no evidence for the carbohydrate needs of rugby union players in terms of performance. The lower intakes than expenditure would suggest the players were losing weight. Previous research shows that rugby union players lose body fat during preseason training.

No Association between Vitamin D and Acute Respiratory Tract Infections Amongst Elite New Zealand Rugby Players and Rowers.

Upper respiratory tract infections are the most common infections reported by elite athletes. Low vitamin D status has been associated with an increased risk of upper respiratory tract infections. The aim of this study was to investigate associations between serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25(OH)D), salivary immunoglobulin A (S-IgA) concentrations, and acute respiratory tract infections (colds/flu) (ARI) in elite rowers and rugby players. A total of 53 (23 rugby players, 30 rowers) elite New Zealand athletes volunteered to participate in an interview, and to provide a blood and a saliva sample. Testing occurred twice, 6 months apart. Athletes' serum 25(OH)D concentrations and s-IgA levels were both significantly higher in summer, 108.9 (CI 102.8, 115.4) nmol/L, than in winter, 86.8 (CI 81.8, 92.1) nmol/L (p < 0.01, p = 0.028). The occurrence of an acute respiratory tract infection did not differ significantly between the time points (p = 0.322). However, ARI duration was significantly longer in winter than in summer (6.9 ± 4.3 days vs 4.8 ± 3.0 days; p = 0.044). There were no significant correlations between athletes' 25(OH)D levels and their s-IgA levels (p > 0.05) nor with acute respiratory tract infection occurrence (p > 0.05) nor duration (p > 0.05) in summer or winter. These findings suggest there may not be any associations between serum 25(OH)D concentrations and acute respiratory tract infections in this population. However, this null finding may be attributed to the high vitamin D concentrations seen in these athletes.

Do Image-Assisted Mobile Applications Improve Dietary Habits, Knowledge, and Behaviours in Elite Athletes? A Pilot Study.

To date, there has been a paucity of research on optimal ways to educate and promote dietary behavioural change within athletes. Optimising athlete nutrition is fundamental to reaching peak performance and maintaining athlete wellbeing. MealLogger® is a smartphone application that incorporates the use of an image-based food record and social-media functionality to provide in-application personalised feedback to individuals or groups, peer-support, and a platform to deliver nutrition education material. This study measured the feasibility of MealLogger® within New Zealand elite male field hockey players (n = 17) aged 18⁻20 to increase athlete knowledge and nutrition promoting behaviours. During a six-week intervention, participants were instructed to log images of their meals three days per week and they received individualised dietetic feedback on logged meals. Weekly nutrition-education fact-sheets and videos were delivered through the application. Nutrition knowledge increased moderately from baseline (%Pre 54.7 ± 14.3; %Post 61.1 ± 11.45, p = 0.01). Participants report a highly positive experience of application use (8/10) with 82.3% attempting to make positive changes in dietary behaviours based on in-app education. All participants preferred this method to traditional methods of dietary analysis. Using image-based applications such as MealLogger® is an effective approach to monitor dietary intake and deliver education to optimise the nutritional behaviours of elite athletes.

Knowledge and attitudes to vitamin D and sun exposure in elite New Zealand athletes: a cross-sectional study.

BACKGROUND: Sun safety and vitamin D status are important for prolonged health. They are of particular interest to those working with athletes for whom for whom safe sun practices maybe limited. The aim of this cross-sectional study was to describe the attitudes of elite New Zealand athletes to both vitamin D and sun exposure. METHODS: 110 elite New Zealand outdoor athletes volunteered to participate in an interview with a trained interviewer. The interviewer asked the athletes questions on their Vitamin D knowledge, attitudes and practices regarding sun exposure as well as their concerns about skin cancer. RESULTS: Athletes were more concerned about their risk of skin cancer (66%) than their vitamin D status (6%). Although the majority (97%) were aware of Vitamin D and could identify the sun as a source (76%) only 17% could name another source of Vitamin D. Only 10 (9%) reported always applying sunscreen before going out in the sun. No athlete reported reapplying sunscreen every hour and 25 suggesting that they never reapply sunscreen. CONCLUSIONS: Athletes are concerned about skin cancer however, their use of sunscreen is not optimal suggesting reapplication of sunscreen could be targeted in order to reduce the risk of sun cancer. Awareness of sources of Vitamin D other than the sun may also need to be improved potentially through educational interventions and possibly in conjunction with sun smart messages.

Fluid and electrolyte balance during two different preseason training sessions in elite rugby union players.

The purpose of this study was to compare fluid balance between a resistance and an aerobic training sessions, in elite rugby players. It is hypothesized that resistance exercise will result in a higher prevalence of overdrinking, whereas during the aerobic session, underdrinking will be more prevalent. As with previous fluid balance studies, this was an observational study. Twenty-six players completed the resistance training session, and 20 players completed the aerobic training session. All players were members of an elite rugby union squad competing in the southern hemisphere's premier competition. For both sessions, players provided a preexercise urine sample to determine hydration status, pre- and postexercise measures of body mass, and blood sodium concentration were taken, and the weight of drink bottles were recorded to calculate sweat rates and fluid intake rates. Sweat patches were positioned on the shoulder of the players, and these remained in place throughout each training session and were later analyzed for sodium concentration. The percentage of sweat loss replaced was higher in the resistance (196 ± 130%) than the aerobic training session (56 ± 17%; p = 0.002). Despite this, no cases of hyponatremia were detected. The results also indicated that more than 80% of players started training in a hypohydrated state. Fluid intake seems to differ depending on the nature of the exercise session. In this group of athletes, players did not match their fluid intakes with their sweat loss, resulting in overdrinking during resistance training and underdrinking in aerobic training. Therefore, hydration strategies and education need to be tailored to the exercise session. Furthermore, given the large number of players arriving at training hypohydrated, improved hydration strategies away from the training venue are required.

Probiotic supplementation reduces the duration and incidence of infections but not severity in elite rugby union players.

OBJECTIVES: The attenuation of the number and severity of infections is of importance to athletes. Probiotics use has increased over recent years with beneficial effects believed to include improvements in immune function. Research has focused on their effectiveness for reducing the number, duration and severity of infections amongst endurance athletes. At present no research has been undertaken with team sport athletes. This randomised controlled trial aimed to determine the effectiveness of probiotics on the number, duration and severity of infections amongst elite union rugby players. DESIGN: Randomised control trial with two arms; placebo and probiotic. METHODS: Thirty elite rugby union players were allocated in random order to receive a probiotics supplement or a placebo for four weeks each. Supplements were consumed on a daily basis. There was a four week washout period between treatments. Participants completed a daily diary to identify and rate the severity of any infectious symptoms. RESULTS: During the probiotic treatment 14/30 participants never experienced a single upper respiratory tract illness (URTI) or gastrointestinal (GI) episode, compared to 6/30 on the placebo supplementation (p=0.033). The mean±standard deviation for the number of days of illness tended to be higher for the placebo, (5.8±6.6 days) than probiotic (3.4±4.6 days), (p=0.054). There was no significant difference in the severity of the symptoms between the two treatment groups (p=0.110). CONCLUSIONS: These positive effects of probiotic supplements provide evidence for the beneficial effects of daily supplementation with these probiotic strains in highly trained rugby union players.