Measuring Instructional Interactions During Reading Instruction for Students Receiving Intervention in Middle School.

More than two-thirds of middle school students do not read proficiently. Research has shown that targeted interventions using explicit instruction methods can improve reading outcomes for struggling readers. A central feature of explicit instruction is the systematic implementation of instructional interactions, but it is not clear what specific instructional interaction practices lead to stronger outcomes for middle school readers. This study used a regression discontinuity design to compare the frequency and impact of instructional interactions experienced by eighth-grade students who received a targeted reading intervention (n = 1,461) with those who did not (n = 4,292). Results indicated that students who received intervention experienced far more instructional interactions with their teachers than did students who did not. However, the association between rates of interaction and student need in the intervention group was minimal, and the relationship between the rate of instructional interactions and reading growth was mixed. Implications for intervening with struggling students in the middle grades are discussed.

Kindergarteners at Risk for Severe Mathematics Difficulties: Investigating Tipping Points of Core Mathematics Instruction.

A concerning number of students enter kindergarten facing an intractable variation of mathematics difficulties (MD). This study investigated the impact of an explicit, core kindergarten mathematics program on the mathematical outcomes of kindergartners who demonstrated risk for severe MD at kindergarten entry and examined whether these students improved from a category of high MD risk (i.e., <10th percentile) to a lower risk of MD (i.e., norm-referenced performance at or above the 10th, 20th, 30th, and 40th percentiles) between the fall and spring of kindergarten. Differential response to the program based on the classroom-level proportion of students with severe MD was also explored. A total of 795 kindergarteners with severe MD from 122 classrooms were included in the analyses. Results suggested students with severe MD in treatment classrooms improved from fall to spring at a greater rate than their control peers. Treatment students also demonstrated higher rates of improvement from below the 10th percentile to a performance at or above the 20th, 30th, and 40th percentiles across the school year. No evidence of differential efficacy of the program by the classroom-level proportion of students with severe MD was found. Implications for using explicit mathematics programs to thwart the onset of severe MD among academically vulnerable students are discussed.

Student Practice Opportunities in Core Mathematics Instruction: Exploring for a Goldilocks Effect for Kindergartners With Mathematics Difficulties.

Opportunities for practice play a critical role in learning complex behaviors. In the context of explicit mathematics instruction, practice facilitates systematic opportunities for students with mathematics difficulties (MD) to learn new mathematics content and apply such knowledge and skills to novel mathematics problems. This study explored whether there is an optimal amount of student practice that teachers should provide in core mathematics instruction to maximize the mathematics achievement of kindergarten students with MD, a so called "Goldilocks effect," as opposed to simply "more is better." Results from observation data collected in a large-scale efficacy trial supported the latter rather than the former. Specifically, we found that three individual practice opportunities for every explicit teacher demonstration of mathematical content was associated with increased mathematics achievement for students with MD relative to fewer practice opportunities. Implications for facilitating frequent student practice opportunities during core mathematics instruction and designing professional development for teachers who work with students with MD are discussed.

Examining the Impact of Group Size on the Treatment Intensity of a Tier 2 Mathematics Intervention Within a Systematic Framework of Replication.

Group size and treatment intensity are understudied topics in mathematics intervention research. This study examined whether the treatment intensity and overall intervention effects of an empirically validated Tier 2 mathematics intervention varied between intervention groups with 2:1 and 5:1 student-teacher ratios. Student practice opportunities and the quality of explicit instruction served as treatment intensity metrics. A total of 465 kindergarten students with mathematics difficulties from 136 intervention groups participated. Results suggested comparable performances between the 2:1 and 5:1 intervention groups on six outcome measures. Observation data indicated that student practice differed by group size. Students in the 5:1 groups received more opportunities to practice with their peers, while students in the 2:1 groups participated in more frequent and higher quality individualized practice opportunities. Implications in terms of delivering Tier 2 interventions in small-group formats and engaging at-risk learners in meaningful practice opportunities are discussed.

Using propensity score matching to estimate treatment effects of afterschool programs on third-grade reading outcomes.

Evidence on whether afterschool programs enhance academic achievement is limited and mixed. In this study, a group of community providers delivered interventions to students to improve academic achievement. We used propensity score matching to estimate the impact of these afterschool interventions on third-grade reading achievement. A significant effect of moderate magnitude was found favoring students who participated in afterschool programming. Propensity score matching and other methodological considerations are described to support the importance and value of conducting rigorous evaluations of afterschool programs.

Investigating the incremental validity of cognitive variables in early mathematics screening.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the incremental validity of a set of domain general cognitive measures added to a traditional screening battery of early numeracy measures. The sample consisted of 458 kindergarten students of whom 285 were designated as severely at-risk for mathematics difficulty. Hierarchical multiple regression results indicated that Wechsler Abbreviated Scales of Intelligence (WASI) Matrix Reasoning and Vocabulary subtests, and Digit Span Forward and Backward measures explained a small, but unique portion of the variance in kindergarten students' mathematics performance on the Test of Early Mathematics Ability-Third Edition (TEMA-3) when controlling for Early Numeracy Curriculum Based Measurement (EN-CBM) screening measures (R² change = .01). Furthermore, the incremental validity of the domain general cognitive measures was relatively stronger for the severely at-risk sample. We discuss results from the study in light of instructional decision-making and note the findings do not justify adding domain general cognitive assessments to mathematics screening batteries. (PsycINFO Database Record

Examining the Efficacy of a Tier 2 Kindergarten Mathematics Intervention.

This study examined the efficacy of a Tier 2 kindergarten mathematics intervention program, ROOTS, focused on developing whole number understanding for students at risk in mathematics. A total of 29 classrooms were randomly assigned to treatment (ROOTS) or control (standard district practices) conditions. Measures of mathematics achievement were collected at pretest and posttest. Treatment and control students did not differ on mathematics assessments at pretest. Gain scores of at-risk intervention students were significantly greater than those of control peers, and the gains of at-risk treatment students were greater than the gains of peers not at risk, effectively reducing the achievement gap. Implications for Tier 2 mathematics instruction in a response to intervention (RtI) model are discussed.

An Examination of the Efficacy of a Multitiered Intervention on Early Reading Outcomes for First Grade Students at Risk for Reading Difficulties.

This article presents findings of an efficacy trial examining the effect of a multitiered instruction and intervention model on first grade at-risk students' reading outcomes. Schools (N = 16) were randomly assigned to the treatment or control condition. In the fall of Grade 1, students were assigned to an instructional tier on the basis of Stanford Achievement Test-10th Edition scores (31st percentile and above = Tier 1; from the 10th to the 30th percentile = Tier 2). In both conditions, students identified as at risk (i.e., Tier 2; n = 267) received 90 min of whole group instruction (Tier 1) and an additional 30 min of daily small group intervention (Tier 2). In the treatment condition, teachers were trained to enhance core reading instruction by making instruction more explicit and increasing practice opportunities for students in Tier 1. In addition, at-risk readers were provided an additional 30-min daily small group intervention with content that was highly aligned with the Tier 1 core reading program. Results indicate significant, positive effects of the intervention on students' decoding and first semester fluent reading and potentially positive effects on reading comprehension and total reading achievement.

Effects of a paired bilingual reading program and an English-only program on the reading performance of English learners in Grades 1-3.

This longitudinal study examined the effects of a paired bilingual program and an English-only reading program on English reading outcomes for Spanish-speaking English learners (ELs) in first, second, and third grades. Participants were 214 ELs enrolled in first grade in 12 high-poverty, low-achieving schools at the beginning of the study. Results of piecewise growth modeling analysis indicated that ELs in the paired bilingual group made more growth on oral reading fluency in English than ELs in the English-only group across all grades. Conversely, regression analysis revealed that the difference in reading comprehension outcomes between these two groups was not statistically significant in first and third grades, independent of risk category, whereas in second-grade, at-risk ELs in the paired bilingual group had statistically significant higher scores in reading comprehension than ELs in the English-only group (d = +0.51). In general, ELs at risk for reading difficulties appeared to benefit more from the paired bilingual program than ELs with moderate or low-risk for reading difficulties. Implications of findings to advance theory and practice on the most effective program to teach reading to ELs are discussed.

Effect of initial status and growth in pseudoword reading on Spanish reading comprehension at the end of first grade.

This study analyzes the effect of initial status and growth in Spanish pseudoword reading in kindergarten and first grade on reading comprehension in Spanish at the end of first grade. One hundred and sixty-eight Spanish-speaking English learners who were learning to read in Spanish and English in the United States participated in the study. Results of hierarchical linear modeling indicate that students grew, on average, by 95 letter-sounds in Spanish from the middle of kindergarten to the end of first grade. Structural equation modeling indicated that 53% of the variance in Spanish reading comprehension at the end of first grade was explained by Spanish initial status on pseudoword reading, Spanish kindergarten overall reading performance, and growth in Spanish pseudoword reading. Findings are important in a Response to Intervention approach where screening and progress monitoring of pseudoword reading helps educators determine the level of support beginning readers need to acquire the alphabetic principle, an important skill that contributes substantially to Spanish reading comprehension.

Effect of initial status and growth in pseudoword reading on Spanish reading comprehension at the end of first grade / Efecto del estado inicial y progreso en lectura de pseudopalabras sobre la comprensión lectora en español al finalizar el primer grado

This study analyzes the effect of initial status and growth in Spanish pseudoword reading in kindergarten and fi rst grade on reading comprehension in Spanish at the end of first grade. One hundred and sixtyeight Spanish-speaking English learners who were learning to read in Spanish and English in the United States participated in the study. Results of hierarchical linear modeling indicate that students grew, on average, by 95 letter-sounds in Spanish from the middle of kindergarten to the end of first grade. Structural equation modeling indicated that 53% of the variance in Spanish reading comprehension at the end of first grade was explained by Spanish initial status on pseudoword reading, Spanish kindergarten overall reading performance, and growth in Spanish pseudoword reading. Findings are important in a Response to Intervention approach where screening and progress monitoring of pseudoword reading helps educators determine the level of support beginning readers need to acquire the alphabetic principle, an important skill that contributes substantially to Spanish reading comprehension(AU)

Este estudio analiza el efecto del estado inicial y progreso en lectura de pseudopalabras en niños españoles de Educación Infantil y primer grado sobre la comprensión lectora al finalizar el primer grado. Ciento sesenta y ocho estudiantes de habla española que estaban aprendiendo a leer en español e inglés en los Estados Unidos participaron en el estudio. Los resultados del modelo jerárquico lineal indican que los estudiantes alcanzaron un promedio de aprendizaje de 95 sonidos de letras en español desde la mitad del jardín de infantes hasta finalizar el primer grado. Modelos de ecuaciones estructurales indicó que al finalizar el primer grado el 53% de la varianza en comprensión lectora de español se explica por el estado inicial de lectura de pseudopalabras, el rendimiento global de lectura en español en el período de Educación Infantil, y el progreso en lectura de pseudopalabras en español. Los hallazgos son importantes y con implicaciones para un modelo de respuesta a la intervención ya que tanto en la detección como en el seguimiento el control de los avances que se producen en la lectura de pseudopalabras ayudaría a los profesores a determinar el nivel de apoyo que necesitan los lectores principiantes para adquirir el principio alfabético, una habilidad importante que contribuye sustancialmente a la comprensión lectora en español (AU)