Cell cycle: the Flp side of Cdc14.

Despite their conserved structures, protein phosphatases of the budding yeast Cdc14p family appear to perform distinct physiological roles in controlling late events of the cell cycle in different organisms.

Interactions of Cdc4p, a myosin light chain, with IQ-domain containing proteins in Schizosaccharomyces pombe.

The fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe undergoes cell division through a medially placed actomyosin-based contractile ring. One of the key components of this ring is the F-actin based motor protein myosin II. The myosin II heavy chain Myo2p has two light-chain-binding domains, IQl and IQ2, which bind the essential light chain, Cdc4p, and the regulatory light chain, Rlc1p. Previously, we have reported the characterization of cells expressing Myo2p lacking the IQ2 domain that facilitates Myo2p interaction with Rlc1p. In this study, we have created and characterized S. pombe strains carrying precise deletions of IQ1 and the entire neck region encompassing the IQ1 and IQ2 domains. Surprisingly, we found that the entire neck region of Myo2p is dispensable for Myo2p function. Cells deleted for IQ1, IQ2 and the entire neck region of Myo2p do not display any obvious cytoskeletal abnormalities. Immunofluorescence studies indicated that Cdc4p localizes at the ring in early and late mitotic cells in a strain in which interactions of Cdc4p with both the myosin II heavy chains (Myo2p and Myp2p) are abolished. Unlike mutations in Rlc1p that are suppressed by a simultaneous deletion of its binding site on Myo2p, mutations in the essential light chain Cdc4p are not suppressed by deletion of its binding sites on Myo2p, suggesting that Cdc4p may have additional partners essential for cytokinesis. Consistent with this, we provide evidence that two other IQ-domain containing actomyosin ring proteins, Rng2p (an IQGAP-related protein) and Myo51p (a type V myosin heavy chain), physically interact with Cdc4p. We concluded that Cdc4p, a novel myosin light chain, interacts with multiple actomyosin ring components to effect cytokinesis.

1,3-beta-Glucan synthase: a useful target for antifungal drugs.

1,3-beta-glucan synthase, a multisubunit enzyme, is responsible for fungal cell wall construction, division septum deposition, and ascospore wall assembly. The catalytic subunit of this enzyme complex, an integral membrane protein, has been identified both in model yeasts Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Schizosaccharomyces pombe, and in pathogenic fungi such as Candida, Aspergillus, Cryptococcus and Pneumocystis species. The catalytic activity of the 1,3-beta-glucan synthase is regulated by a small GTPase of the Ras superfamily, the Rho-GTPase, and protein kinase C (Pkc)-like signaling molecules. It has been shown that the plasma membrane localization of this enzyme is essential for its activity. Interestingly, inhibition of 1,3-beta-glucan synthase activity by anti-fungal drugs of the lipopeptide type triggers a cell cycle feedback mechanism leading to cell cycle arrest. Recent progress in studies of molecular mechanisms of the temporal and spatial regulation of 1,3-beta-glucan synthase is presented. The implication of the cell cycle checkpoint that is activated by the anti-fungal drugs is also discussed.

Type II myosin regulatory light chain relieves auto-inhibition of myosin-heavy-chain function.

The F-actin based motor protein myosin II has a key role in cytokinesis. Here we show that the Schizosaccharomyces pombe regulatory light chain (RLC) protein Rlc1p binds to Myo2p in manner that is dependent on the IQ sequence motif (the RLC-binding site), and that Rlc1p is a component of the actomyosin ring. Rlc1p is important for cytokinesis at all growth temperatures and is essential for this process at lower temperatures. Interestingly, all deleterious phenotypes associated with the loss of Rlc1p function are suppressed by deletion of the RLC binding site on Myo2p. We conclude that the sole essential function of RLCs in fission yeast is to relieve the auto-inhibition of myosin II function, which is mediated by the RLC-binding site, on the myosin heavy chain (MHC).

Fission yeast Rng3p: an UCS-domain protein that mediates myosin II assembly during cytokinesis.

Cell division in many eukaryotes, including the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe, utilizes a contractile actomyosin ring. In S. pombe, the actomyosin ring is assembled at the medial cortex upon entry into mitosis and constricts at the end of anaphase to guide the centripetal deposition of the septum. Despite identification of several structural components essential for actomyosin ring assembly, the interdependencies between these gene-products in the process of ring assembly are unknown. This study investigates the role of Rng3p, a member of the UCS-domain containing protein family (Unc-45p, Cro1p, She4p), in actomyosin ring assembly. Null mutants in rng3 resemble deletion mutants in the type II myosin heavy chain (myo2) and rng3(ts) mutants show strong negative interactions with the myo2-E1 mutant, suggesting that Rng3p is involved in modulating aspects of type II myosin function. Interestingly, a green fluorescent protein (GFP) tagged Rng3p fusion is detected at the division site in the myo2-E1 mutant, but not in other myo2-alleles, wild-type cells or in 18 other cytokinesis mutants. Assembly and maintenance of Rng3p at the division site in the myo2-E1 mutant requires F-actin. Rng3p is also required for the proper assembly of Myo2p and F-actin into a functional actomyosin ring but is not necessary for their accumulation at the division site. We conclude that Rng3p is a novel component of the F-actin cytoskeleton essential for a late step in actomyosin ring assembly and that it might monitor some aspect of type II myosin assembly during actomyosin ring construction.

Tying the knot: linking cytokinesis to the nuclear cycle.

For the survival of both the parent and the progeny, it is imperative that the process of their physical division (cytokinesis) be precisely coordinated with progression through the mitotic cell cycle. Recent studies in the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae and the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe are beginning to unravel the nature of the links between cytokinesis and the nuclear division cycle. The cyclin-dependent kinases and a novel surveillance mechanism that monitors cytokinesis and/or morphogenesis appear to play important regulatory roles in forging these links. It is becoming increasingly clear that the inactivation of the mitosis-promoting cyclin-dependent kinase, which marks the completion of the nuclear division cycle, is essential for actomyosin ring constriction and division septum assembly in both yeasts. Additionally, the spindle pole bodies are emerging as important transient locale for proteins that might play a key role in coupling the completion of mitosis to the onset of cytokinesis.

A checkpoint that monitors cytokinesis in Schizosaccharomyces pombe.

Cell division in Schizosaccharomyces pombe is achieved through the use of a medially positioned actomyosin ring. A division septum is formed centripetally, concomitant with actomyosin ring constriction. Genetic screens have identified mutations in a number of genes that affect actomyosin ring or septum assembly. These cytokinesis-defective mutants, however, undergo multiple S and M phases and die as elongated cells with multiple nuclei. Recently, we have shown that a mutant allele of the S. pombe drc1(+)/cps1(+) gene, which encodes a 1,3-(beta)-glucan synthase subunit, is defective in cytokinesis but displays a novel phenotype. drc1-191/cps1-191 cells are capable of assembling actomyosin rings and completing mitosis, but are incapable of assembling the division septum, causing them to arrest as binucleate cells with a stable actomyosin ring. Each nucleus in arrested cps1-191 cells is able to undergo S phase but these G(2) nuclei are significantly delayed for entry into the M phase. In this study we have investigated the mechanism that causes cps1-191 to block with two G(2) nuclei. We show that the inability of cps1-191 mutants to proceed through multiple mitotic cycles is not related to a defect in cell growth. Rather, the failure to complete some aspect of cytokinesis may prevent the G(2)/M transition of the two interphase-G(2) nuclei. The G(2)/M transition defect of cps1-191 mutants is suppressed by a mutation in the wee1 gene and also by the dominant cdc2 allele cdc2-1w, but not the cdc2-3w allele. Transient depolymerization of all F-actin structures also allowed a significant proportion of the cps1-191 cells to undergo a second round of mitosis. We conclude that an F-actin and Wee1p dependent checkpoint blocks G(2)/M transition until previous cytokinesis is completed.

Drc1p/Cps1p, a 1,3-beta-glucan synthase subunit, is essential for division septum assembly in Schizosaccharomyces pombe.

Schizosaccharomyces pombe divides by medial fission through the use of an actomyosin-based contractile ring. A division septum is formed centripetally, concomitant with ring constriction. Although several genes essential for cytokinesis have been described previously, enzymes that participate in the assembly of the division septum have not been identified. Here we describe a temperature-sensitive mutation, drc1-191, that prevents division septum assembly and causes mutant cells to arrest with a stable actomyosin ring. Unlike the previously characterized cytokinesis mutants, which undergo multiple mitotic cycles, drc1-191 is the first cytokinesis mutant that arrests with two interphase nuclei. Interestingly, unlike drc1-191, drc1-null mutants proceed through multiple mitotic cycles, leading to the formation of large cells with many nuclei. drc1 is allelic to cps1, which encodes a 1,3-beta-glucan synthase subunit. We conclude that Drc1p/Cps1p is not required for cell elongation and cell growth, but plays an essential role in assembly of the division septum. Furthermore, it appears that constriction of the actomyosin ring might depend on assembly of the division septum. We discuss possible mechanisms that account for the differences in the phenotypes of the drc1-191 and the drc1-null mutants and also reflect the potential links between Drc1p and other cytokinesis regulators.

S. pombe Pbh1p: an inhibitor of apoptosis domain containing protein is essential for chromosome segregation.

Proteins containing the baculovirus inhibitor of apoptosis repeats (BIR domains) have been identified in a wide range of species. BIR domain containing proteins are thought to inhibit caspases and thereby cause inhibition of apoptosis. A BIR domain containing protein has been recently identified by the Schizosaccharomyces pombe genome sequencing project. However, caspase-like proteins have not been found in yeasts, suggesting that the BIR domain containing proteins might play a fundamental role in cell regulation, in addition to their well-characterized role in inhibition of apoptosis. In this study, we have characterized Pbh1p, an S. pombe BIR domain containing protein. Construction and analysis of a null mutant in pbh1+ revealed that pbh1+ is essential for cell viability. Moreover, cells devoid of Pbh1p are defective in chromosome condensation and chromosome segregation. Thus, proper chromosome segregation requires the function of Pbh1p. Over-production of Pbh1p led to abnormalities in mitosis and cytokinesis, suggesting that the levels of Pbh1p are important for regulation of mitosis and cytokinesis.

Evidence for F-actin-dependent and -independent mechanisms involved in assembly and stability of the medial actomyosin ring in fission yeast.

Cell division in a number of eukaryotes, including the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe, is achieved through a medially placed actomyosin-based contractile ring. Although several components of the actomyosin ring have been identified, the mechanisms regulating ring assembly are still not understood. Here, we show by biochemical and mutational studies that the S.pombe actomyosin ring component Cdc4p is a light chain associated with Myo2p, a myosin II heavy chain. Localization of Myo2p to the medial ring depended on Cdc4p function, whereas localization of Cdc4p at the division site was independent of Myo2p. Interestingly, the actin-binding and motor domains of Myo2p are not required for its accumulation at the division site although the motor activity of Myo2p is essential for assembly of a normal actomyosin ring. The initial assembly of Myo2p and Cdc4p at the division site requires a functional F-actin cytoskeleton. Once established, however, F-actin is not required for the maintenance of Cdc4p and Myo2p medial rings, suggesting that the attachment of Cdc4p and Myo2p to the division site involves proteins other than actin itself.

The cdr2(+) gene encodes a regulator of G2/M progression and cytokinesis in Schizosaccharomyces pombe.

Schizosaccharomyces pombe cells respond to nutrient deprivation by altering G2/M cell size control. The G2/M transition is controlled by activation of the cyclin-dependent kinase Cdc2p. Cdc2p activation is regulated both positively and negatively. cdr2(+) was identified in a screen for regulators of mitotic control during nutrient deprivation. We have cloned cdr2(+) and have found that it encodes a putative serine-threonine protein kinase that is related to Saccharomyces cerevisiae Gin4p and S. pombe Cdr1p/Nim1p. cdr2(+) is not essential for viability, but cells lacking cdr2(+) are elongated relative to wild-type cells, spending a longer period of time in G2. Because of this property, upon nitrogen deprivation cdr2(+) mutants do not arrest in G1, but rather undergo another round of S phase and arrest in G2 from which they are able to enter a state of quiescence. Genetic evidence suggests that cdr2(+) acts as a mitotic inducer, functioning through wee1(+), and is also important for the completion of cytokinesis at 36 degrees C. Defects in cytokinesis are also generated by the overproduction of Cdr2p, but these defects are independent of wee1(+), suggesting that cdr2(+) encodes a second activity involved in cytokinesis.

Isolation and characterization of new fission yeast cytokinesis mutants.

Schizosaccharomyces pombe is an excellent organism in which to study cytokinesis as it divides by medial fission using an F-actin contractile ring. To enhance our understanding of the cell division process, a large genetic screen was carried out in which 17 genetic loci essential for cytokinesis were identified, 5 of which are novel. Mutants identifying three genes, rng3(+), rng4(+), and rng5(+), were defective in organizing an actin contractile ring. Four mutants defective in septum deposition, septum initiation defective (sid)1, sid2, sid3, and sid4, were also identified and characterized. Genetic analyses revealed that the sid mutants display strong negative interactions with the previously described septation mutants cdc7-24, cdc11-123, and cdc14-118. The rng5(+), sid2(+), and sid3(+) genes were cloned and shown to encode Myo2p (a myosin heavy chain), a protein kinase related to budding yeast Dbf2p, and Spg1p, a GTP binding protein that is a member of the ras superfamily of GTPases, respectively. The ability of Spg1p to promote septum formation from any point in the cell cycle depends on the activity of Sid4p. In addition, we have characterized a phenotype that has not been described previously in cytokinesis mutants, namely the failure to reorganize actin patches to the medial region of the cell in preparation for septum formation.

Rng2p, a protein required for cytokinesis in fission yeast, is a component of the actomyosin ring and the spindle pole body.

BACKGROUND: An actomyosin-based contractile ring plays a pivotal role in cytokinesis. Despite the identification of many components of the ring, the steps involved in its assembly are unknown. The fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe is an attractive organism in which to study cytokinesis because its cell cycle has been well characterized; it divides by medial fission using an actomyosin ring; and a number of S. pombe mutants defective in actomyosin ring assembly have been isolated. Here, we have characterized one such mutant, rng2. RESULTS: Temperature-sensitive rng2 mutants accumulated F-actin cables in the medial region of the cell but failed to organize the cables into a ring. In rng2-null mutants, only a spot-like structure containing F-actin was detected. The rng2+ gene encodes a protein related to human IQGAP1, a protein that binds actin and calmodulin and is a potential effector for the Rho family of GTPases. Rng2p localized to the actomyosin ring and to the spindle pole body (SPB) of interphase and mitotic cells. Localization of Rng2p to the actomyosin ring but not the SPB required F-actin. Rng2p interacted with calmodulin, a component of the SPB and the actomyosin ring. The rng2 gene showed genetic interactions with three other actomyosin ring assembly mutants, cdc4, cdc12, and rng5. CONCLUSIONS: The S. pombe IQGAP-related protein Rng2p is a component of the actomyosin ring and the SPB and is required for actomyosin ring construction following assembly of F-actin at the division site.

A wat1 mutant of fission yeast is defective in cell morphology.

The organization of the actin cytoskeleton plays an integral role in cell morphogenesis of all eukaryotes. We have isolated a temperature-sensitive mutant in Schizosaccharomyces pombe, wat1-1, in which acting patches are delocalized, resulting in an elliptically shaped cell phenotype. Molecular cloning and DNA sequencing of wat1+ showed that the gene encodes a 314 residue protein containing WD-40 repeats. Cells lacking wat1+ are slow growing but viable at 25 degrees C and temperature-sensitive for growth above 33 degrees C. At restrictive temperature, wat1-d strains are phenotypically indistinguishable from wat1-1. When combined with a deletion for the wat1+ gene, cdc mutants failed to elongate at restrictive temperature and exhibited alterations in actin patch localization. This analysis suggests that wat1+ is required directly or indirectly for polarized cell growth in S. pombe. Wat1p and a functional, epitope-tagged, version of Wat1p can be overproduced without inducing alterations in cell morphology.

Fission yeast Sop2p: a novel and evolutionarily conserved protein that interacts with Arp3p and modulates profilin function.

Profilins bind to monomeric actin and also interact with ligands such as phosphoinositide 4,5-bisphosphate, the proline-rich protein VASP and a complex of four to six polypeptides identified in Acanthamoeba that includes two actin-related proteins. Here, we report the identification and characterization of an essential gene from Schizosaccharomyces pombe, sop2+, a mutation in which rescues the temperature-sensitive lethality of a profilin mutation, cdc3-124. The sop2-1 mutant is defective for cell elongation and septation, suggesting that it is involved in multiple cortical actin-requiring processes. Consistent with a role in actin cytoskeletal function, negative interactions have been identified between sop2-1 and act1-48, a mutant allele of actin. Sop2p is a novel 377 amino acid polypeptide with similarity to proteins of the beta-transducin repeat family. Sop2p-related proteins have been identified by sequencing projects in diverse species, and we have isolated a human cDNA highly related to sop2+, SOP2 Hs, which functionally complements the sop2-1 mutation. Sop2p proteins from all species contain peptide sequences identical or highly similar to two peptide sequences from an Acanthamoeba beta-transducin repeat protein present in the profilin binding complex. Biochemical analyses demonstrate that Sop2p is present in a complex which also contains the actin-related protein, Arp3p. Immunofluorescence studies reveal the presence of Sop2p in (i) punctate structures distributed throughout the cell, (ii) cables that extend the length of the cell, and (iii) a medial band in a small percentage of septating cells. Collectively these data demonstrate the interaction of Sop2p with Arp3p, profilin and actin.

Schizosaccharomyces pombe cdc4+ gene encodes a novel EF-hand protein essential for cytokinesis.

Schizosaccharomyces pombe cells divide by medial fission. One class of cell division mutants (cdc), the late septation mutants, defines four genes: cdc3, cdc4, cdc8, and cdc12 (Nurse, P., P. Thuriaux, and K. Nasmyth. 1976. Mol. & Gen. Genet. 146:167-178). We have cloned and characterized the cdc4 gene and show that the predicted gene product. Cdc4p, is a 141-amino acid polypeptide that is similar in sequence to EF-hand proteins including myosin light chains, calmodulin, and troponin C. Two temperature-sensitive lethal alleles, cdc4-8 and cdc4-31, accumulate multiple nuclei and multiple improper F-actin rings and septa but fail to complete cytokinesis. Deletion of cdc4 also results in a lethal terminal phenotype characterized by multinucleate, elongated cells that fail to complete cytokinesis. Sequence comparisons suggest that Cdc4p may be a member of a new class of EF-hand proteins. Cdc4p localizes to a ringlike structure in the medial region of cells undergoing cytokinesis. Thus, Cdc4p appears to be an essential component of the F-actin contractile ring. We find that Cdc4 protein forms a complex with a 200-kD protein which can be cross-linked to UTP, a property common to myosin heavy chains. Together these results suggest that Cdc4p may be a novel myosin light chain.

The Schizosaccharomyces pombe cdc3+ gene encodes a profilin essential for cytokinesis.

The fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe divides by medial fission and, like many higher eukaryotic cells, requires the function of an F-actin contractile ring for cytokinesis. In S. pombe, a class of cdc- mutants defective for cytokinesis, but not for DNA replication, mitosis, or septum synthesis, have been identified. In this paper, we present the characterization of one of these mutants, cdc3-124. Temperature shift experiments reveal that mutants in cdc3 are incapable of forming an F-actin contractile ring. We have molecularly cloned cdc3 and used the cdc3+ genomic DNA to create a strain carrying a cdc3 null mutation by homologous recombination in vivo. Cells bearing a cdc3-null allele are inviable. They arrest the cell cycle at cytokinesis without forming a contractile ring. DNA sequence analysis of the cdc3+ gene reveals that it encodes profilin, an actin-monomer-binding protein. In light of recent studies with profilins, we propose that Cdc3-profilin plays an essential role in cytokinesis by catalyzing the formation of the F-actin contractile ring. Consistent with this proposal are our observations that Cdc3-profilin localizes to the medial region of the cell where the F-actin contractile ring forms, and that it is essential for F-actin ring formation. Cells overproducing Cdc3-profilin become elongated, dumbbell shaped, and arrest at cytokinesis without any detectable F-actin staining. This effect of Cdc3-profilin overproduction is relieved by introduction of a multicopy plasmid carrying the actin encoding gene, act1+. We attribute these effects to potential sequestration of actin monomers by profilin, when present in excess.

A new tropomyosin essential for cytokinesis in the fission yeast S. pombe.

Mutations in the Schizosaccharomyces pombe cdc8 gene impair cytokinesis. Here we clone cdc8+ and find that it encodes a novel tropomyosin. Gene disruption results in lethal arrest of the cell cycle, but spore germination, cell growth, DNA replication and mitosis are all unaffected. Haploid cdc8 gene disruptants are rescued by expression of a fibroblast tropomyosin complementary DNA. Immunofluorescence microscopy of wild type and cdc8 gene disruptants indicates that cdc8 tropomyosin is present in two distinct cellular distributions: in dispersed patches, and during cytokinesis as a transient medial band. Collectively these results indicate that cdc8 tropomyosin has a specialized role which, we suggest, is to form part of the F-actin contractile ring at cytokinesis. These results establish the basis for further genetic studies of cytokinesis and of contractile protein function in S. pombe.

Stimulation of muscarinic acetylcholine receptors increases synaptosomal free calcium concentration by protein kinase-dependent opening of L-type calcium channels.

In synaptosomes prepared from rat cerebral cortex, free cytosolic calcium concentration ([Ca2+]i) was measured using the fluorescent dye fura-2. Incubation of fura-2-loaded synaptosomes with carbachol increased [Ca2+]i in a dose-dependent manner (1-1,000 microM), with a maximum response of 22 +/- 2% at approximately 100 microM and an EC50 (calculated concentration producing 50% of the maximum response) of 30 microM. The effect of carbachol (100 microM) on [Ca2+]i was antagonised by atropine, but not by hexamethonium (10 microM). The calculated concentration of atropine needed for 50% inhibition (IC50) was 260 nM. The rise in [Ca2+]i produced by carbachol was reduced in the absence of extrasynaptosomal Ca2+ and effectively blocked by the L-type calcium channel blocker nifedipine (with an IC50 of 29 nM). The response to carbachol was reduced if the synaptosomes were preincubated with the protein kinase inhibitors H7 [1-(5-isoquinolinylsulfonyl)-2- methylpiperazine] (from 17% in the solvent control to 4%) and staurosporine (from 20% in the solvent control to 3%). These results show that stimulation of muscarinic acetylcholine receptors in synaptosomes increases [Ca2+]i by protein kinase-dependent activation of 1,4-dihydropyridine-sensitive calcium channels.