Broiler Age Differently Affects Apparent Metabolizable Energy and Net Energy of Expanded Soybean Meal.

Accurately determining the energy values of ingredients is crucial for meeting energy requirements and achieving maximum production performance of animals. This study was conducted to measure the available energy values of three expanded soybean meals (ESBMs) for Arbor Acres male broilers from 14 to 16 day and 28 to 30 day using the difference method. A corn-soybean basal diet was formulated, and test diets were developed with 25% ESBMs as substitutes for energy-yielding ingredients. A completely randomized design was used for determining heat production and energy balance of broilers in 12 open-circuit respiration chambers, with six replicates per group. Prior to measurement, four (14 to 16 day) or two (28 to 30 day) birds per chamber were given a 4-day adaption to diets and chambers. The period lasted for 3 days to determine the apparent metabolizable energy (AME), nitrogen balance, gas exchanges, and heat production. Broilers fed test diets with 25% ESBM exhibited higher nitrogen intake (p < 0.05), nitrogen excreta (p < 0.05), and increased energy deposition as protein irrespective of age (p < 0.05). Furthermore, results showed that AME, nitrogen corrected AME (AMEn), and net energy (NE) values of 3 ESBMs averaged 10.48, 8.93, and 6.88 MJ/kg for broilers from 14 to 16 day, while averaged 11.91, 10.42, and 6.43 MJ/kg for broilers from 28 to 30 day. Broilers from 28 to 30 day showed significantly higher AMEn values but lower NE/AME values of ESBMs compared with those from 14 to 16 day (p < 0.05). Therefore, age-dependent energy values of a single ingredient should be considered in feed formulations to optimize economic returns.

Different fat-to-fiber ratios by changing wheat inclusion level impact energy metabolism and microbial structure of broilers.

Introduction: Dietary nutrient content is crucial for energy metabolism and development of gut microbiota. Herein, this study aimed to explore the effects of fat-to-fiber ratios on nutrient transporter, energy metabolism and gut microbiota when ingredients composition was altered. Methods: A total of 240 as-hatched broiler chickens were randomly assigned into three groups including low fat-high dietary fiber (LF-HD), medium fat-medium dietary fiber (MF-MD) and high fat-low dietary fiber (HF-LD), with diets being iso-protein, and broilers were offered the same commercial diets from 21 to 42 d. The data were analyzed using one-way ANOVA of SPSS. Results and Discussion: Results showed that HF-LD diet significantly increased glucose content and decreased triglyceride in serum of broilers (p < 0.05). The mRNA abundance of jejunal gene involved in glucose transporter and tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle was significantly increased in broilers fed with HF-LD diets. Compared with LF-HD, HF-LD had a lower abundance of Anaerofilum and CHKCI001, and an increased proportion of beneficial bacteria such as Alistipes, Catenibacillus, Intestinimonas, Lactobacillus, and Peptococcus (p < 0.05). Functional prediction of these microbial changes indicated that HF-LD diet drove caecal microbiota to participate in carbohydrate metabolism and TCA cycle (p < 0.05). Dietary HF-LD-induced microbiota changes were positively correlated with growth performance of broilers (p < 0.05). Therefore, HF-LD diet increased glucose transporters and energy metabolism in intestine and shaped microbial structure and metabolic pathways, which may benefit the growth performance of broilers.

Determination of metabolisable and net energy contents of corn fed to Arbor Acres broilers and Beijing You chickens.

This study was done to compare the energy and nutrient utilisation of corn in Arbor Acres (AA) broilers and Beijing You (BJY) chickens. BJY chickens with the same age as AA broilers were named BJY1 chickens, and with the same body weight as AA broilers were named BJY2 chickens. Three groups of broilers (36 male AA broilers, 72 male BJY1 chickens, and 36 male BJY2 chickens), 2 treatments per group, 6 replicates per treatment, 3 chickens or 6 chickens per replicate. During each period, birds were fed in chambers for 11 days, including 5 days for adaptation to the feed, 3 days for excreta and gas data collection and another 3 days for fasting were recorded. Results showed that the fasting heat production (FHP) of AA, BJY1 and BJY2 chickens gradually stabilised after fasting for 72 h, the FHP of AA, BJY1 and BJY2 chickens were 486.54, 536.22 and 548.90 KJ/kg BW0.70 /day respectively. AA broilers had significantly lower (p < 0.01) apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) of starch in corn than that of BJY1 and BJY2 chickens, whereas there were no significant differences (p > 0.05) observed in ATTD of dry matter, crude protein, ether extract and crude fibre. The apparent metabolisable energy (AME) values of corn in AA, BJY1 and BJY2 chickens were 16.18, 16.81, and 16.39 MJ/kg dry matter (DM) and the corresponding nitrogen-corrected AME (AMEn) values were 15.71, 16.38 and 15.99 MJ/kg DM respectively. The net energy (NE) values of corn in AA, BJY1 and BJY2 chickens were 12.03, 12.28 and 11.97 MJ/kg DM respectively. In conclusion, BJY chickens had a higher maintenance energy requirement than that of AA broilers, and AA broilers of the same age and weight as BJY chickens showed no significant differences in AME, AMEn and NE values of corn.

Comparative study of apparent metabolizable energy and net energy values of dephenolized cottonseed proteins for laying hens.

Optimizing the energy utilization of nutrients and ensuring maximum benefits are continuous goals for livestock producers. The net energy (NE) value of feed reflects its nutritional value in the precision feeding system. An experiment was conducted to determine the apparent metabolizable energy (AME) and NE values of 3 types of dephenolized cottonseed protein (DCP) for Hy Line Brown hens aged 42 to 45 weeks using the reference diet substitution method. A reference diet based on corn soybean meal was used to meet the nutritional needs of Hy Line Brown laying hens. To render the crude protein and energy values of the 3 test diets similar, 10.5%, 12%, and 16% of the gross energy yielding ingredients from the reference diet were replaced with DCP 1, DCP 2, and DCP 3, respectively. The birds were fed 4 diets during a 7-d adaptation period. After the dietary adaptation period, 2 birds per replicate from each treatment group were placed in an individual open circuit respiratory calorimetry chamber for a 3-d experimental period. Daily O2 consumption and CO2 production were recorded, and excreta samples were collected. The AME values of DCP 1, DCP 2, and DCP 3 were 3,049.05, 2,820.13, and 2,982.31 kcal/kg of dry matter (DM), respectively. The NE values of DCP 1, DCP 2, DCP 3 were 1,475.77, 1,910.31, and 1,905.37 kcal/kg of DM, respectively, and the NE:AME ratios were 48.40%, 67.74%, and 63.89%, respectively. Our data show that the AME value of DCP does not reflect the nutritional value of the feed. The NE value of DCP with a high ME value was not necessarily high.

Nutrient utilisation, metabolisable and net energy values of corn for broiler chickens during the starter and grower phases.

The objective of this experiment was to determine the energy values and nutrient utilisation of five corns at starer (14-16 days) and grower (28-30 days) phases. The 1-5 corn samples were obtained from Jinzhou, Liaoning; Gongzhuling, Jilin; Qingdao, Shandong; Songyuan, Jilin and Xinxiang, Henan, China. Each phase of the trial consisted of six treatments with six replicates each. The number of birds per replicate was 4 (Days 14-16) and 2 (Days 28-30). Diets included a corn-soybean meal basal diet and five test diets contained 30% of each corn sample, which replaced 30% of the energy-yielding components of the basal diet (as-fed basis). The trial consisted of six cycles, each cycle was 7 days, including 4 days for adaptation to feed. On Day 4, the birds were transferred to the respiration chambers. In the following 3 days, total excreta were collected and daily heat production was measured. The apparent total tract retention of dry matter, crude protein, ether extract, and starch improved with age, showing the same trend as energy values. The nitrogen-corrected metabolisable energy (AMEn) values for corn samples at the starter phase were in the range of 16.25-17.41 MJ/kg DM and at the grower phase were in the range of 17.23-17.60 MJ/kg DM. On the other hand, the net energy (NE) values of the five corn samples ranged from 9.93 to 11.67 MJ/kg DM during the starter period and from 11.19 to 12.27 MJ/kg DM during the grower period. The AMEn and NE values of the five corn samples were close to the literature values for corn. Results from our research indicated the nutrient digestibility and energy values of corn samples increase with the age of the broiler.

Energy values evaluation and improvement of soybean meal in broiler chickens through supplemental mutienzyme.

This study measured the metabolizable energy of soybean meal (SBM) and evaluated effects of soybean meal specific enzymes supplementation in corn-soybean diets on growth performance, intestinal digestion properties and energy values of 28-day-old broilers. A total of 336 one-day-old male AA broiler chickens were distributed to 7 groups in a completely random design. The birds were given 7 diets containing 6 diets with different combined soybean meals and a fasting treatment, 8 replicates per treatment and 6 birds per replicate (Trial 1). A total of 672 one-day-old male AA broiler chickens were randomly allocated to 7 dietary treatments including a control diet and 6 diets supplemented with 300 mg/kg α-galactosidase, 200 mg/kg ß-mannanase, and 300 mg/kg protease individually or in combination (Trial 2). Apparent metabolizable energy (AME) of broilers was measured from d 25 to 27 in both trial 1 and trial 2. The results showed that AME values of combined soybean meals averaged 2,894 kcal/kg. Dietary ß-mannanase and protease supplementation increased body weight gain (P < 0.05) during d 0 to 14, whereas did not affect the growth performance (P > 0.05) during d 14 to 28. Addition of ß-mannanase in combination with other enzymes significantly increased lipase and trypsin content (P < 0.05) in ileum. In addition, dietary ß-mannanase and protease supplementation individually or in combination enhanced trypsin enzyme content in jejunum (P < 0.05). The ß-mannanase enzyme enhanced villus height and villus height to crypt depth ratio (P < 0.05) of ileum compared with control diet. Moreover, supplementation of enzyme except for protease enhanced raffinose and stachyose degradation ratio (P < 0.05). Dietary ß-mannanase supplementation individually or in combination enhanced AME and AMEn values (P < 0.05). This study demonstrated that dietary enzyme supplementation especially ß-mannanase improved intestinal digestion properties and contributed to high energy values.

Effect of Dihydroquercetin on Energy Metabolism in LPS-Induced Inflammatory Mice.

This study investigated the effects and alterations of dihydroquercetin on the growth performance, nutriment metabolism, antioxidant and immune function, and energy substrate utilization in lipopolysaccharide-challenged mice. A total of 0, 50, and 200 mg/kg of dihydroquercetin were intragastrically administered once a day for 21 days. After the pretreatment with dihydroquercetin, each group was subjected to a lipopolysaccharide challenge (except for the control group). After lipopolysaccharide injection, food intake, body weight, metabolic indexes of blood and liver nutrients, blood inflammatory factors, and liver oxidative stress indexes were measured at 6, 12, 24, and 48 h, respectively. Indirect calorimetry analysis was performed by respiratory gas analysis for 48 h to calculate the energy substrate metabolism of carbohydrate, fat, and protein. Urinary nitrogen excretion was measured to evaluate the urinary protein metabolism to calculate the substrate utilization. The results showed that dihydroquercetin pretreatment can significantly increase the weight gain and average food intake and decrease the mortality rate in lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammation mice. Furthermore, dihydroquercetin pretreatment can alleviate the negative effects of lipopolysaccharides by increasing levels of superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase and by decreasing the malondialdehyde and serum inflammatory cytokines (interleukin-1ß, nuclear factor κB, and interleukin-6). Dihydroquercetin pretreatment also can relieve nutrient metabolic disorder by increasing blood glucose, serum total protein, and liver glycogen levels and reducing serum and liver triglycerides, serum cholesterol, serum lactate dehydrogenase, and serum urea nitrogen levels. Meanwhile, it increases the relative utilization of carbohydrate, reducing relative utilization of protein and lipid, alleviating the change in energy metabolism pattern from glucose-predominant to lipid-predominant caused by lipopolysaccharide stimulation. In addition, the degree of metabolic pattern transformation depends on the dose of dihydroquercetin supplement. Finally, according to principal component analysis, we found that the inflammation was strongest in the mice at 24 h and was subsequently relieved in the LPS-stimulated group, whereas in the dihydroquercetin-pretreated group, the inflammation was initially relieved. To summarize, dihydroquercetin pretreatment can improve energy metabolism disorder and attenuate the negative effects of lipopolysaccharide challenge in mice from the initial stage of inflammation.

Metabolizable and Net Energy Values of Expanded Cottonseed Meal for Laying Hens and Broiler Chickens.

Three experiments were conducted to determine the metabolizable energy (ME) and net energy (NE) values of expanded cottonseed meal (ECSM) for broilers aged 14-16 days (Experiment 1), broilers aged 28-30 days (Experiment 2), and 45-week-old Hy-Line Brown hens (Experiment 3). Reference diets based on corn-soybean meal were used to meet the nutritional needs of the birds. The test diets contained ECSM as basis, which was used to replace 18.5% of the gross energy-yielding ingredients from the reference diet. The birds were fed a commercial feed before the experimental period. After the dietary adaptation period, six birds per replicate (Experiment 1) and two birds per replicate (Experiments 2 and 3) for each treatment group were placed in an individual open-circuit respiratory calorimetry chamber for 3 days. Daily O2 consumption and CO2 production were recorded, and excreta samples were collected. The ME and NE values of ECSM were determined using the substitution method. The apparent metabolizable energy (AME) values of ECSM for experiments 1, 2, and 3 were 2605.85, 2178.31, and 2782.60 kcal/kg of dry matter (DM), respectively. The NE values were 1655.23, 1196.64, and 1538.19 kcal/kg of DM, respectively. The NE:AME ratios of ECSM were 63.52%, 54.93%, and 55.29%, respectively. Our data showed that the ME and NE values of ECSM differed across various growth stages and types of chickens. These results demonstrate that the appropriate ME and NE should be used in the design of different feed formulas for specific growth stages and types of chickens.

Evaluating and predicting net energy value of wheat and wheat bran for broiler chickens.

OBJECTIVE: It is crucial to accurately determine the net energy (NE) values of feed ingredients because the NE system is expected to be applied to the formulation of broilers feed. The NE values of 5 wheat and 5 wheat brans were determined in 12-to 14-day old Arbor Acres (AA) broilers with substitution method and indirect calorimetry method. METHODS: A total of 12 diets, including 2 reference diets (REF) and 10 test diets (5 wheat diets and 5 wheat bran diets) containing 30% of test ingredients, were randomly fed to 864 male AA birds with 6 replicates of 12 birds per treatment. These birds were used to determine metabolizable energy (ME) (8 birds per replicate) in the chicken house and NE (4 birds per replicate) in the chamber respectively at the same time. After a 4-d dietary and environment adaptation period, growth performance, energy values, energy balance and energy utilization were measured during the following 3 d. Multiple linear regression analyses were further performed to generate prediction equations for NE values based on the chemical components and ME values. The NE prediction equation were also validated on another wheat diet and another wheat bran diet with high correlation (r = 0.98, r = 0.75). RESULTS: The NE values of 5 wheat and 5 wheat bran samples are 9.34, 10.02, 10.27, 11.33, and 10.49 MJ/kg, and 5.37, 5.17, 4.87, 5.06, and 4.88 MJ/kg DM, respectively. The equation with the best fit were NE = 1.968AME-0.411×ADF-14.227 (for wheat) and NE = -0.382×CF-0.362×CP-0.244×ADF+20.870 (for wheat bran). CONCLUSION: The mean NE values of wheat and wheat bran are 10.29 and 5.07 MJ/kg DM in AA broilers. The NE values of ingredients could be predicted by their chemical composition and energy value with good fitness.

Net energy, energy utilization, and nitrogen and energy balance affected by dietary pea supplementation in broilers.

Pea starch consists predominantly of C-type of amylopectin chain which is more resistant to digestive enzymes than A-type of starch thus slowly digested in poultry. It was hypothesized that the presence of slowly digested pea starch in broiler diets will increase net energy and the efficiency of energy utilization in broilers. Two experiments were performed to investigate starch digestibility of pea at different incubation times (in vitro study) and the effect of dietary pea on heat increment and net energy in broilers using an open-circuit respiratory calorimetry system (in vivo study). One-day-old Ross 308 male broilers were fed a common starter crumble from d 1 to 10 and standard grower diets thereafter. At d 21, birds were transferred to the chambers each housing 2 birds. Each treatment was replicated 6 times with 2 identical runs of 3 replicates per treatment. A wheat-soybean meal-based diet was used as a control and the treatment diet contained 500 g of pea/kg pea. In vitro study showed that pellet processing increased (P < 0.001) starch digestibility, particularly at shorter times for wheat and a much larger response for pea. Birds offered the pea-based diet had lower (P = 0.002) feed intake, lower (P = 0.020) body weight gain, but a similar (P > 0.05) FCR compared to those offered the wheat-based diet. Net energy (NE) and apparent metabolizable energy (AME) values were higher in the pea-based diet than in the wheat-based diet (P = 0.037 for NE and P = 0.018 for AME). Heat production, respiratory quotient, heat increment of feed, efficiency of utilization of gross energy for AME, and efficiency of utilization of AME for NE did not differ (P > 0.05) between the 2 treatments. There was no effect (P > 0.05) of pea on the total tract digestibilities of dry matter, crude protein and ash, but the total tract digestibility of starch was higher (P = 0.022) in the pea-based diet compared to the wheat-based diet. This study provides insight into the energy metabolism of broilers offered a pea-based diet and indicates that dietary pea supplementation increases dietary AME and NE but has no effect on heat increment of feed and the efficiency of energy utilization in broilers.

Evaluation of origanum oil, hydrolysable tannins and tea saponin in mitigating ruminant methane: In vitro and in vivo methods.

The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of origanum oil (ORO), hydrolysable tannins (HYT) and tea saponin (TES) on methane (CH4 ) emission, rumen fermentation, productive performance and gas exchange in sheep by using in vitro and in vivo methods. The ORO, HYT and TES additive levels were normalized per kg dry matter (DM) in both in vitro and in vivo experiments: ORO-0, 10, 20 and 40 ml/kg; HYT-0, 15, 30 and 60 g/kg; and TES-0, 15, 30 and 60 g/kg, respectively. During in vitro incubation, 40 ml/kg ORO linearly decreased CH4 emission (p < 0.05); 20 and 40 ml/kg ORO cubically decreased carbon dioxide (CO2 ) production (p < 0.05), and rumen pH was cubically raised with the increasing ORO additive level (p < 0.01). The 60 g/kg HYT cubically decreased CH4 production (p < 0.05). The pH of 60 g/kg HYT was higher than that of 15 and 30 g/kg (p < 0.01); the pH of 20 g/kg TES was higher than that of 5 g/kg (p < 0.05). In the in vivo experiments, 40 ml/kg ORO inhibited dry matter intake (p < 0.01) cubically and reduced average daily gain (ADG) and feed conversion ratio (FCR) cubically (p < 0.05), and 20 or 40 ml/kg ORO linearly decreased CH4 production based on per day or metabolic weight (W0.75 ) (p < 0.05). Both 30 and 60 g/kg HYT linearly inhibited CH4 emission on the bases of per day and W0.75 (p < 0.05). The 20 g/kg TES improved the apparent digestibility of crude protein (p < 0.05), 10 and 20 g/kg of TES decreased CH4 emission (p < 0.05), and 5 g/kg of TES reduced O2 consumption and CO2 production (p < 0.05). In conclusion, these three plant extracts all showed the abilities on mitigating CH4 emission of sheep with appropriate additive ranges.

Effect of different forage-to-concentrate ratios on ruminal bacterial structure and real-time methane production in sheep.

Emission from ruminants has become one of the largest sources of anthropogenic methane emission in China. The structure of the rumen flora has a significant effect on methane production. To establish a more accurate prediction model for methane production, the rumen flora should be one of the most important parameters. The objective of the present study was to investigate the relationship among changes in rumen flora, nutrient levels, and methane production in sheep fed with the diets of different forage-to-concentration ratios, as well as to screen for significantly different dominant genera. Nine rumen-cannulated hybrid sheep were separated into three groups and fed three diets with forage-to-concentration ratios of 50:50, 70:30, and 90:10. Three proportions of the diets were fed according to a 3 × 3 incomplete Latin square, design during three periods of 15d each. The ruminal fluid was collected for real-time polymerase chain reaction (real-time PCR), high-throughput sequencing and in vitro rumen fermentation in a new real-time fermentation system wit. Twenty-two genera were screened, the abundance of which varied linearly with forage-to-concentration ratios and methane production. In addition, during the 12-hour in vitro fermentation, the appearance of peak concentration was delayed by 26-27min with the different structure of rumen bacteria. The fiber-degrading bacteria were positively correlated with this phenomenon, but starch-degrading and protein-degrading bacteria were negative correlated. These results would facilitate macro-control of rumen microorganisms and better management of diets for improved nutrition in ruminants. In addition, our findings would help in screening bacterial genera that are highly correlated with methane production.

Effects of Environmental Temperature and Dietary Fat Content on The Performance and Heat Production and Substrate Oxidation in Growing Pigs.

This study aimed to evaluate the effect of temperature and dietary fat level on growth performance, heat production, nutrient oxidation and nitrogen balance in growing pigs. Thirty-two pigs (Duroc × Landrace × Large White) with initial weight of 25±1.91 kg were assigned to treatments in 2×4 factorial design. All pigs were fed with two isoenergetic and isoproteic diets of different fat levels (low fat level: 3.68% fat of dry matter (DM) and high fat level: 8.39% fat of DM) under four environmental temperatures (23, 18, 13 and 8 ºC). Heat production (HP) and nutrient oxidation were calculated from gas exchange via measurement with respiration chambers. The results showed that there was no interaction effect on growth performance by the temperature and dietary fat level. The average daily feed intake (ADFI) was lower (P < 0.001), the average daily gain (ADG) was higher (P < 0.001) and feed utilization was more efficient at 23 ºC than 13 and 8 ºC (P < 0.001). Dietary fat had no effect on growth performance and feed utilization at the four different temperatures. A significant interaction (P < 0.001) between temperature and dietary fat level on oxidation of carbohydrate (OXCHO) and fat (OXF) was observed. HP, OXF and OXCHO were significantly increased (P < 0.001) as environment temperatures decreased. Increasing dietary fat generated an increase in the OXF and decrease in the OXCHO (P < 0.001). No significant difference was observed in protein oxidation (OXP) of two factors. The intakes of nitrogen, nitrogen excretion in feces (FN) and urine (UN) by the pigs kept in 8 ºC environment were highest. Nitrogen digestibility decreased as environmental temperature decreased, with the most efficient gains obtained at 23 ºC. However, nitrogen retention was not influenced by environmental temperature. Dietary fat level did not affect nitrogen balance. No significant interaction between temperature and dietary fat level was observed for nitrogen balance. These results indicated that the rate of growth and nutrition utilization in pigs fed ad libitum are influenced by the environmental temperatures in which they are maintained, and the oxidation of nutrition utilization of the pig to different environmental temperatures is altered by the dietary fat supplementation.