Maisonneuve ankle fracture.

Maisonneuve fracture (MF) is defined as an ankle fracture-dislocation associated always with a fracture of the proximal quarter of the fibula and rupture of the anterior and interosseous tibiofibular ligaments. Other injuries are variable. Recent CT studies have demonstrated that MF is a far more complex injury than initially supposed. Therefore it is necessary to change substantially the current concepts related to this issue. MF is combined in about 80% of cases with a fracture of the posterior malleolus and also with malposition of the distal fibula in the fibular notch. An exact assessment of these injuries requires post-injury CT examination which should be used as a standard in MFs. The main goal of treatment is anatomical reduction of the distal fibula into the fibular notch. In case of avulsion of a larger fragment of the posterior malleolus, it is necessary to perform as the first step its reduction and fixation from the posterolateral approach and thus restore integrity of the notch. Closed reduction of the distal fibula is associated with malposition in up to 50% of cases and therefore open reduction from a short anterolateral approach is preferred. Accuracy of reduction should be always checked by postoperative CT scan.

Bosworth ankle dislocation fracture - current concept review.

Bosworth fracture (BF) is a rare, but a severe injury to the ankle, characterized by displacement of a fragment of the fractured fibula (mostly of Weber B type) from the tibiofibular incisure to the posterior surface of the distal tibia. In 70% of cases, it is associated with a fracture of the posterior malleolus. This injury is not quite well known, with only 175 cases described in the literature to date. BF requires CT examination, including 3D reconstructions. Closed reduction almost always fails as there is an increased risk of compartment syndrome, mainly after repeated attempts at closed reduction. Therefore, operative treatment is indicated as a standard. The outcome of the operation should be always checked by postoperative CT examination.

Acromioclavicular dislocation associated with scapular fractures - pathoanatomy of the injury.

INTRODUCTION: No detailed study dealing with an injury to the AC joint in combination with scapular fractures has been published to date. The aim of this study is to describe pathoanatomy of these injuries. METHODS: In a series of 519 scapular fractures in adult patients from the period of 20022020 we identified a total of 20 (3.9%) cases associated with AC dislocation. The group comprised 17 men and 3 women with the mean age of 49 years (range, 2178). Radiographs of the shoulder joint followed by CT examination, including 3D reconstructions, were performed in all patients. This documentation allowed assessment of the scapular fracture pattern and type of injury to the AC joint. RESULTS: AC dislocation was associated with a simple scapular fracture in 15 cases (7 fractures of the coracoid base, 4 fractures of the acromion or the lateral spine, 2 fractures of the scapular body, 1 fracture of the superior and 1 fracture of the inferior glenoid). In 5 cases AC dislocation accompanied multiple or complex scapular fractures (once a combination of a coracoid fracture and a fracture of the lateral scapular spine, once a combination of a fracture of the superior glenoid and of the acromion, 2 cases of a complex intraarticular fracture and 1 case of scapulothoracic dissociation). CONCLUSION: AC dislocation is relatively infrequent injury accompanying scapular fractures. It is most commonly associated with fractures of coracoid, acromion/lateral spine or superior glenoid. No case of AC dislocation was recorded in a fracture of the scapular neck.

Fractures of the surgical neck of the scapula with separation of the coracoid base.

Fractures of the surgical neck of the scapula combined with a fracture of the coracoid base constitute a specific and rare type of a fracture pattern. When displaced, they present a severe, completely unstable type of surgical neck fracture, requiring a precise CT diagnosis, open reduction and stable internal fixation of the fracture via the Judet approach. The aim of this study is to describe our four cases and discuss three others reported to date.

Maisonneuve fracture.

INTRODUCTION: Maisonneuve fracture (MF) is a generally known entity in ankle trauma. However, details about this type of injury can be found only rarely in the literature. For these reasons we have decided to perform a study on MF epidemiology and pathoanatomy. METHODS: The group comprised 70 patients (47 men, 23 women), with the mean age of 48 years, who sustained an ankle fracture-dislocation involving the proximal quarter of the fibula. Ankle radiographs in three views and lower leg radiographs in two views were performed in all patients. A total of 59 patients underwent CT examination in three views, including 3D CT reconstruction in 49 of these patients. MRI was performed in 4 patients. Operative treatment was used in 67 patients; open reduction of the distal fibula into the fibular notch was opted for in 54 of them. RESULTS: The highest MF incidence rate was recorded in the 5th decade in the whole group and in men, while in women the peak incidence was in the 6th decade. After the age of 50, the share of women significantly increased. In 64 cases, the fibular fracture was subcapital, and in 6 cases it involved the fibular head. In 24% of the patients, the fibular fracture was seen only in the lateral radiograph of the lower leg. Widening of the tibiofibular clear space was shown by radiographs in 40 cases. Posterior dislocation of the fibula (Bosworth fracture) and tibiofibular diastasis were recorded in 2 cases each. An injury to the anterior and posterior tibiofibular ligaments was found in all 54 patients with open reduction of the distal fibula. A fracture of the medial malleolus was identified in 27 cases (39%) and a complete lesion of the deltoid ligament in 36 cases (51%); in 7 cases (10%) the medial structures were intact. A fracture of the posterior malleolus occurred in 54 (77%) patients. Osteochondral fracture of the talar dome was diagnosed in 2 patients and compression of the articular surface of the distal tibia in the region of the fibular notch in 1 patient. CONCLUSION: Maisonneuve fracture includes a wide range of injuries both to bone and ligamentous structures of the ankle. Therefore, CT examination is an indispensable part of assessment of this type of fracture.

Infraglenoid fracture of the scapular neck fact or myth?

In 1991, Ada and Miller described a new type of scapular neck fracture. It was a transverse fracture of the scapular body passing from the inferior border of the glenoid to the medial border of the scapular body (their type IIC). This fracture was later designated by Goss as a “fracture of neck inferior to scapula spine“. Since then, this type of fracture has been the cause of a number of controversies, mainly concerning the so-called “floating shoulder”. However, scapular neck fractures can be considered to be only those fractures that separate completely the glenoid from the scapular body. Term “fracture of neck inferior to scapula spine“ does not fit into this definition because it does not compromise the junction between the glenoid fossa and the scapular body. Actually, it is a transverse two-part fracture of the infraspinous part of the scapular body. As a result this term should no longer be used in the literature.

[Anatomy of fractures of the inferior scapular angle]. / Anatomie zlomenin dolního úhlu lopatky.

INTRODUCTION: The aim of this study is to describe the anatomy of fractures of the inferior angle and the adjacent part of the scapular body, based on 3D CT reconstructions. METHOD: In a series of 375 scapular fractures, we identified a total of 20 fractures of the inferior angle of the scapular body (13 men, 7 women), with a mean patient age of 50 years (range 3373). In all fractures, 3D CT reconstructions were obtained, allowing an objective evaluation of the fracture pattern with a focus on the size and shape of the inferior angle fragment, propagation of the fracture line to the lateral and medial borders of the infraspinous part of the scapular body, fragment displacement and any additional fracture of the ipsilateral scapula and the shoulder girdle. RESULTS: We identified a total of 5 types of fracture involving the distal half of the infraspinous part of the scapular body. The first type, recorded in 5 cases, affected only the apex of the inferior angle, with a small part of the adjacent medial border. The second type, occurring in 4 cases, involved fractures separating the entire inferior angle. The third type, represented by 4 cases, was characterized by a fracture line starting medially close above the inferior angle and passing proximolaterally. The separated fragment had a shape of a big drop, carrying also the distal half of the lateral pillar in addition to the inferior angle. In the fourth type identified in 5 fractures, the separated fragment was formed both by the inferior angle and a variable part of the medial border. The fifth type, being by its nature a transition to the fracture of the infraspinous part of the body, was recorded in 2 cases, with the same V-shaped fragment. CONCLUSION: Fractures of the inferior angle and the adjacent part of the scapular body are groups of fractures differing from other infraspinous fractures of the scapular body. Although these fractures are highly variable in terms of shape, they have the same course of fracture line and the manner of displacement.Key words: scapula scapula fractures scapular body fractures inferior angle classification of scapular body fractures.

Classification of scapular body fractures.

INTRODUCTION: The aim of this study is to present, on the basis of 3D CT reconstructions of 187 of scapular body fractures, a clinically oriented classification respecting the biomechanical architecture of the scapula. METHODS: In a series of 375 scapula fractures we identified 187 body fractures in187 patients (157 men, 30 women) with the mean age of 48 years (range; 16100 years). 3D CT reconstructions were obtainedof all fractures, to allow an objective evaluation of the fracture pattern. A total of 46 patients were operated on and their intraoperative findings were correlated with 3D CT reconstructions. Scapular body fractures were deemed to be only those fractures that passed through the biomechanical body of the scapula, i.e. involved at least one of the pillars. Excluded from the study were fractures of the superior angle and of the superior border of the scapula as they were only marginal fractures leaving both pillars intact; scapular neck fractures defined as extra-articular two-part fractures of the lateral angle separating the glenoid from the scapular body; and fractures of the inferior angle of the scapula. Evaluation focused on the course of fracture lines, their relationship to the two pillars, and the number of fragments. A separate fragment was considered to be only such a fragment that carried part of the circumference of the biomechanical body. The intercalary fragmentsbroken off the central part of the infraspinous fossa were not included. RESULTS: We identified three basic groups of scapular body fractures, i.e. those involving only the spinal pillar, those involving only the lateral pillar and fractures affecting both pillars. Our series included 12 fractures of the spinal pillar, of these in 8 cases the main fracture line passed vertically from the supraspinous fossa of the central part of the pillar toward the medial border of the infraspinous fossa; in 4 cases the scapular spine base was broken off the scapular body. In all the cases, the lateral pillar was left intact and fragments were displaced only insignificantly. Therefore all these fractures were treated non-operatively. A total of 143 fractures involved the lateral pillar. All of them were fractures of the infraspinous portion of the scapular body, i.e. the infraspinous fossa, with the main fracture line propagating from the lateral pillar. This fracture pattern was divided on the basis of the number of circumference fragments into three subtypes, namely two-part (88), three-part (31) and comminuted (24) fractures. Fractures of both pillars were recorded in 32 cases. This fracture had two patterns, one (11 fractures) with a fracture line running through the spinal pillar close to the spinomedial angle to the superior angle of the scapula, and the other (21 fractures) with the main fracture line passing through the weakened central part of the scapular spine. This comminuted type was the most severe injury to the scapular body. The fracture line always propagated through the weakened central part of the spinal pillar. The fracture of the lateral pillar was displaced in all cases more than that of the spinal pillar. CONCLUSION: Classification of scapular body fractures based on involvement of the pillars of the scapular body is logical and simple. It always requires a 3D CT reconstruction, including subtraction of the surrounding bones. It respects the anatomical structure of the scapula and may serve also as a therapeutic guidance in preoperative planning.Key words: scapula scapula fractures scapular body fractures - classification classification of scapular body fractures.

[Classification of posterior malleolar fractures in ankle fractures]. / Klasifikace zlomenin zadní hrany tibie u zlomenin hlezna.

The study presents an overview of the most common radiography and CT-based classifications of posterior malleolar fractures in ankle fracture-dislocations. Their analysis has shown that posterior malleolar fractures largely vary in size and shape. Evaluation of fractures by plain radiographs is inadequate. A detailed assessment of the fragment shape and course of fracture lines requires CT examination in all three projections, followed by 3D CT reconstructions.Key words: ankle fracture - dislocations trimalleolar fractures posterior malleolar fractures classification.

Epidemiology of scapular fractures.

The aim of the study has been to acquire basic epidemiological data based on a representative group of patients with scapular fractures treated in one centre. The study analyses group of 250 patients. Diagnostics was based on CT examinations, in 227 cases with 3D reconstructions, in 97 cases compared with operative findings. Fractures were classified according to the modified anatomical classification of Tscherne and Christ. The analysed groups of patients include only the fracture lines whose existence has been verified by 3D CT reconstructions and intraoperative findings. The most common fracture in the group was that of the scapular body (52%), followed by fractures of the glenoid fossa (29%), fractures of the processes (11%) and fractures of the scapular neck (8%). The most frequent associated injuries to the ipsilateral shoulder girdle were clavicular fractures (19%). Scapular fractures occur primarily in men, predominantly in 4th - 6th decades (66 % patients). The group of women was significantly older as compared to men (p = 0.017). The group of patients with scapular neck fractures was significantly younger as compared to the age of patients with glenoid fracture (p = 0.021) and scapular body fracture (p = 0.035).

Total glenoid fractures.

INTRODUCTION: Fractures affecting the entire glenoid fossa are termed comminuted or total glenoid fractures. However, there are no detailed studies of total glenoid fractures, and only brief mentions can be found in the literature. METHODS: The group comprised 12 patients (mean age, 39 years), who sustained 13 fractures of the glenoid fossa. In all the fractures, all parts of the glenoid fossa were separated from the scapular neck or body. In total 5 patients (6 fractures) were treated non-operatively and 7 patients were operated on. The method of treatment was based on displacement of the fragments, the patient´s general and local conditions. Indication for operative treatment was displacement of articular fragments of more than 3mm. This criterion was met by 10 patients (11 fractures). Owing to the general or local condition, operation was contraindicated in 2 patients with 3 fractures; one patient refused the operation. One patient with a bilateral fracture was lost to follow-up. RESULTS: According to the site of separation of articular fragments, the fractures were divided into three groups - the separation line passed through the anatomical neck; through the coracoid process or surgical neck of the scapula; or through the scapular body. In 6 of the 7 operated patients, a good or very good result was achieved. In 2 patients with minimal fragment dislocation treated non-operatively, the fractures healed in an anatomical position and full range of motion was achieved. In 2 patients with severe fragment displacement treated non-operatively, the healing resulted in glenoid fossa incongruence and painful and limited range of motion. CONCLUSION: Fractures of the entire glenoid fossa are the most severe injuries to scapula. Their diagnosis requires CT examination, including 3D CT reconstruction with subtraction of the surrounding bones. Displaced fractures are indicated for operative treatment from the Judet approach.Key words: scapular fractures glenoid fractures classification, operative treatment Judet approach.

[Scapular fractures]. / Zlomeniny lopatky.

UNLABELLED: Scapular fractures are still a challenge in traumatology of the musculoskeletal apparatus. Their proper understanding is impossible without fundamental anatomical and clinical knowledge. A considerable part of scapular fractures is associated with other severe injuries, particularly to the chest. Essential for diagnosis and treatment of these fractures is radiographic examination, primarily both Neer projections and 3D CT reconstructions. The classifications used so far should be revised as they do not reflect real types of these fractures. Operative treatment should be considered in displaced scapular fractures. Such treatment is not urgent as these fractures may be operated on within up to three weeks of the primary injury. Due to the fact that this is a severe but rare injury, they should be referred to specialized centres. KEY WORDS: scapular fractures classification of scapular fractures operative treatment of scapular fractures.

[Kocher approach to the elbow and its options]. / Kocheruv prístup k loketnímu kloubu a jeho alternativy.

The original Kocher approach was published several times in the 18921907 period. It extends in the interval between the extensor carpi ulnaris and the anconeus and consists in subperiostal release of the lateral collateral ligament (LCL), joint capsule and origin of extensors at the lateral epicondyle and their retraction anteriorly, and a similar release of the anconeus from the distal humerus and its reflection posteriorly. This provides an extensive approach to the elbow. Today this approach is described in the textbooks in various modifications that have little in common with the original description except for the fact that dissection is made in the so called Kocher interval between the extensor carpi ulnaris and the anconeus. Therefore it is often called a limited Kocher approach.The study describes our modification of the Kocher approach that we use primarily in fractures of the head and neck of the radius, in certain fractures of the distal humerus, and also in irreducible dislocations and certain fracture-dislocations of the elbow.The incision is made along the line connecting the lateral epicondyle of the humerus and the border between the proximal and middle thirds of the ulna. The incision is pulled open and the strong, white opalescent common extensor fascia incised in order to identify the interval between the extensor carpi ulnaris and the anconeus. The two muscles are separated by thin vascularized fatty connective tissue which is split in order to expose a typical tendon reinforcing the upper half of the anterior margin of the anconeus. In this phase it is beneficial to detach the origin of the extensor carpi ulnaris from the lateral epicondyle. It facilitates retraction of the extensor carpi ulnaris anteriorly and of the anconeus slightly posteriorly. In contrast with the original Kocher approach, we do not release the anconeus from the lateral epicondyle of the humerus.The muscles are retracted to expose the anterolateral surface of the joint capsule and to identify the course of the LCL complex. The capsule is incised along the anterior margin of LCL, starting from the lateral epicondyle up to and including the radial annular ligament. Arthrotomy performed anterior to LCL spares the insertion of the lateral ulnar collateral ligament on the ulna and, consequently, preserves the elbow stability. If dissection more distally is required in order to expose the radial neck, part of the supinator must be incised as well. In such case the forearm is first carefully pronated as much as possible, as a result of which the canalis supinatorius including the deep branch of the radial nerve will move anteriorly, thus reducing the risk of injury to the nerve.The capsule is incised and opened, revealing the anterolateral surface of the head of humerus and radial head. In this phase it is beneficial to flex the elbow to 90100 degrees, when the anterior part of the capsule will get flabby and allow a better visualization of the joint. The joint capsule must be released from the distal humerus together with extensors originating at the lateral epicondyle of humerus. This will considerably improve visualization of the anterior part of the joint cavity. During wound closure the common extensor fascia must be firmly sutured, as it is a significant but often underestimated stabilizer of the lateral part of the elbow.The extended option of the Kocher approach consists in retraction of the anconeus proximally. It is indicated in certain fracture-dislocations of the proximal forearm, i.e. fractures of the radial head and the entire proximal ulna. After dissection of the whole anconeus, this muscle is detached from the ulnar shaft and entirely reflected proximally. The muscle remains attached by its short proximal margin to the lateral epicondyle of humerus and to olecranon. This eliminates the risk of injury to the neurovascular hilus of the muscle, as the motoric nerve enters the muscle in the middle of its upper border. Retraction of the muscle exposes both the lateral surface of the joint capsule and the lateral surface of the proximal ulna. Further procedure, i.e. incision of the capsule and inspection of the joint, is the same as in the limited Kocher approach.

[Approaches to radial shaft]. / Prístupy k diafýze radia.

In the clinical practice, radial shaft may be exposed via two approaches, namely the posterolateral Thompson and volar (anterior) Henry approaches. A feared complication of both of them is the injury to the deep branch of the radial nerve. No consensus has been reached, yet, as to which of the two approaches is more beneficial for the proximal half of radius. According to our anatomical studies and clinical experience, Thompson approach is safe only in fractures of the middle and distal thirds of the radial shaft, but highly risky in fractures of its proximal third. Henry approach may be used in any fracture of the radial shaft and provides a safe exposure of the entire lateral and anterior surfaces of the radius.The Henry approach has three phases. In the first phase, incision is made along the line connecting the biceps brachii tendon and the styloid process of radius. Care must be taken not to damage the lateral cutaneous nerve of forearm.In the second phase, fascia is incised and the brachioradialis identified by the typical transition from the muscle belly to tendon and the shape of the tendon. On the lateral side, the brachioradialis lines the space with the radial artery and veins and the superficial branch of the radial nerve running at its bottom. On the medial side, the space is defined by the pronator teres in the proximal part and the flexor carpi radialis in the distal part. The superficial branch of the radial nerve is retracted together with the brachioradialis laterally, and the radial artery medially.In the third phase, the attachment of the pronator teres is identified by its typical tendon in the middle of convexity of the lateral surface of the radial shaft. The proximal half of the radius must be exposed very carefully in order not to damage the deep branch of the radial nerve. Dissection starts at the insertion of the pronator teres and proceeds proximally along its lateral border in interval between this muscle and insertion of the supinator. During release and retraction of the supinator posterolaterally, it is beneficial to supinate the proximal fragment of the shaft as much as possible, preferably by K-wire drilled perpendicular into the anterior surface of the fragment and rotated externally. As a result, canalis supinatorius is moved posteriorly which reduces the risk of injury to the deep branch of the radial nerve. The supinator is released always from distal to proximal. Approximately at the level of the biceps brachii tendon, it is usually necessary to identify and ligate the radial recurrent artery and vein which prevent retraction of the radial vessels medially. After detachment of the whole supinator, a small Hohmann elevator is carefully inserted between the muscle and the bone. If necessary, it is now possible to open the anterior surface of the joint capsule and revise the humeroradial joint.

[Internal fixation of radial shaft fractures: Anatomical and biomechanical principles]. / Osteosyntéza zlomenin diafýzy radia: Anatomické a biomechanické principy.

Radius is a critical bone for functioning of the forearm and therefore its reconstruction following fracture of its shaft must be anatomical in all planes and along all axes. The method of choice is plate fixation. However, it is still associated with a number of unnecessary complications that were not resolved even by introduction of locking plates, but rather the opposite. All the more it is surprising that discussions about anatomical and biomechanical principles of plate fixation have been reduced to minimum or even neglected in the current literature. This applies primarily to the choice of the surgical approach, type of plate, site of its placement and contouring, its working length, number of screws and their distribution in the plate. At the same time it has to be taken into account that a plate used to fix radius is exposed to both bending and torsion stress. Based on our 30-year experience and analysis of literature we present our opinions on plate fixation of radial shaft fractures:We always prefer the volar Henry approach as it allows expose almost the whole of radius, with a minimal risk of injury to the deep branch of the radial nerve.The available studies have not so far found any substantial advantage of LCP plates as compared to 3.5mm DCP or 3.5mm LC DCP plates, quite the contrary. The reason is high rigidity of the locking plates, a determined trajectory of locking screws which is often unsuitable, mainly in plates placed on the anterior surface of the shaft, and failure to respect the physiological curvature of the radius. Therefore based on our experience we prefer "classical" 3.5mm DCP plates.Volar placement of the plate, LCP in particular, is associated with a number of problems. The volar surface covered almost entirely by muscles, must be fully exposed which negatively affects blood supply to the bone. A straight plate, if longer, either lies with its central part partially off the bone and overlaps the interosseous border, or its ends overhang the bone laterally. In a locking plate with a fixed determined trajectory of screws, the locking screws in the central holes of the plate pass off the shaft centre only through a thin interosseous border (medial position), or screws at the ends of the plate are inserted eccentrically (lateral position). Both these techniques reduce stability of internal fixation. Where the plate overlaps the interosseous border, it is difficult to control the mutual rotation of the two main fragments. A shorter LCP plate increases rigidity of fixation, suppresses bone healing and often leads to non-union.Placement of the plate on the lateral surface of the radius is more beneficial from the viewpoint of the bending and torsion stress. Lateral surface of the radius is a tension site, its distal half is not covered by muscles which eliminates the necessity to release them, the interosseous border is not obscured by plate and all this allows a safe control of rotational position of fragments. A properly pre-bent plate follows the physiological curvature of the lateral surface of the radius. Full tightening of standard screws will fix both main fragments firmly to the apex of plate concavity and increase stability of the internal fixation. Due to the shape of the cross-section of the radial shaft, the trajectory of screws is the longest in case of lateral placement of the plate, which increases rotational stability.We place the plate always in a minimal three-hole length on each main fragment. Transverse two-fragment fractures may be fixed with a 2+2 configuration, i.e. with two screws on each main fragment. Fractures with an inter-fragment or comminuted zone are fixed in the 3+3 mode. More extensive comminutions, defects or segmental fractures require 4 plate holes on each fragment, but not more. When drilling screw holes the drill must be directed into the interosseous border. As a result, the screw has the longest trajectory and the best fixation in the bone. Perforation of the anterior or posterior surface of the radius considerably shortens the trajectory of the screw and thus reduces stability of internal fixation.

Posterior malleolar fractures of the ankle.

Despite an increasing awareness of injuries to PM in ankle fracture-dislocations, there are still many open questions. The mere presence of a posterior fragment leads to significantly poorer outcomes. Adequate diagnosis, classification and treatment require preoperative CT examination, preferably with 3D reconstructions. The indication for surgical treatment is made individually on the basis of comprehensive assessment of the three-dimensional outline of the PM fracture and all associated injuries to the ankle including syndesmotic instability. Anatomic fixation of the avulsed posterior tibiofibular ligament will contribute to syndesmotic stability and restore the integrity of the incisura tibiae thus facilitating anatomic reduction of the distal fibula. A necessary prerequisite is mastering of posterolateral and posteromedial approaches and the technique of direct reduction and internal fixation. Further clinical studies with higher numbers of patients treated by similar methods and evaluation of pre- and postoperative CT scans will be necessary to determine reliable prognostic factors associated with certain types of PM fractures and associated injuries to the ankle.

[Trochanteric fractures - general overview]. / Trochanterické zlomeniny - základní prehled.

The current possibilities concerning selection of implants and the respective devices provide us with good prerequisites for a successful treatment of almost all trochanteric fractures. The basis is a proper evaluation of the type of the fracture and respecting its biomechanical features. Based on this analysis we select the implant and the proper operative technique. Quality is the highest priority as concerns the actual operation. A number of patients tolerate only one operation and it is better if it takes 10 minutes more than if it is performed improperly. The so called implant failure is in most cases the surgeones failure.

[Trochanteric fractures - anatomy and classification]. / Trochanterické zlomeniny - anatomie a klasifikace.

Classification of trochanteric fractures remains an unresolved issue. While the basic division into pertrochanteric and intertrochanteric fractures is valid, it is necessary to re-assess the existence of individual subtypes included in AO classification. The same applies to the concept of instability of trochanteric fractures. In this respect it is necessary to focus more on the lateral trochanteric wall and primarily on the effect of medial displacement of the femoral shaft in fractures treated by DHS.