Persistent Barriers of the Gluten-Free Basic Food Basket: Availability, Cost, and Nutritional Composition Assessment.

Gluten-related disorders are treated with a gluten-free diet. The "basic food basket" (BFB) consists of a list of basic foods consumed by low-income groups in society, including those lowest-cost versions within each food category. To evaluate the cost, availability, and nutritional quality of the BFB and gluten-free BFB (GF-BFB), foods were photographed, registering their cost, availability, and nutritional characteristics, in high quality and mid-range supermarkets, wholesalers, health shops, and corner shops, matching each regular BFB product with a gluten-free equivalent. Of the 1177 potential products, the selection of lowest-cost foods yielded 55 and 47 products (BFB and GF-BFB, respectively). Breads/cereals and drinks showed the highest differences (279% and 146%, respectively) while meats and sausages showed the lowest ones (18.6%). The GF-BFB cost represents 30.1% of the minimum wage, which covers the cost of 5.2 and 3.3 of the BFB and GF-BFB per month, respectively. Availability ranged between 22.7 and 42.4%. Lower availability was associated with poorer nutritional quality in the GF-BFB, which provides 5% less energy, 26% more fat, and 25% less protein than the BFB. Only 47% of gluten-free products declared their "gluten-free" condition. The results strongly suggest that the GF-BFB must be redesigned to be both gluten-free and nutritionally adequate.

Heavy Metal and Rice in Gluten-Free Diets: Are They a Risk?

A gluten-free diet (GFD) is the treatment of choice for gluten-related disorders. It has been associated with macro- and micronutrient deficiencies. Recently, consumption of arsenic-contaminated rice has raised concern because of the potential greater risk that it may represent for people on GFDs, whose rice consumption is high, since it is a fundamental cereal in GFDs. We reviewed the data published over the last 20 years in Medline and Scielo, in English, French and Spanish, on four metals (As, Hg, Cd, and Pb), to assess whether the evidence suggests that celiac disease or consumption of a GFD is associated with increased levels of blood/urinary metal concentrations. The review revealed a few articles that were directly related to the four metals and their relationships with a GFD. The evidence supports that rice-based products are a relevant source of As and other metals. Clinical studies and evaluations based on NHANES have indicated that persons on GFDs have higher As and Hg blood/urinary levels, suggesting that the diet and not the disease is responsible for it. The levels described are statistically significant compared to those of persons on complete diets, but far from toxic levels. The question of whether higher exposure to heavy metals associated with a GFD is biologically relevant remains unanswered and deserves study.

Commercial oats in gluten-free diet: A persistent risk for celiac patients.

Background: Gluten-free diet is the treatment of celiac disease and other gluten-related disorders and excludes wheat, rye, and barley, while oats inclusion/exclusion has long been a matter of debate. A logo or catchphrase indicating the gluten-free condition in a product is all the consumer relies on to accept the product as suitable for his/her treatment. The oat-based gluten-free products represents a small market, which may have changed, and become more limited during COVID-19 pandemic. Objective: To assess gluten contamination in all labeled oat-based gluten-free local and imported products available in the market, comparing them to matched regular gluten containing counterparts. As a secondary objective, unconventional flours available in the same sale points were also assessed. Results: The search yielded 25 gluten-free labeled oat flours, rolled, and instant cereals, which were compared to 27 regular gluten containing equivalents. Gluten content was above the local (5 ppm) and the Codex Alimentarius cutoff (20 ppm) in 40 and 36% of the gluten-free labeled products, respectively. When all positive products were analyzed together, there were no differences in gluten content between labeled and unlabeled products. Locally produced products were more expensive, while rolled/instant oats were less contaminated than flours (p = 0.01). Precautionary labels advising presence of gluten as allergen was omitted in 37.0% of regular products. Only 33.3% of unconventional flours obtained from open markets and sold in bulk, were gluten contaminated. Conclusion: Oat-based gluten-free products are currently highly contaminated. It is urgent to regulate them and implement protocols that allow safe consumption of these products.

Reduced n-3 and n-6 PUFA (DHA and AA) Concentrations in Breast Milk and Erythrocytes Phospholipids during Pregnancy and Lactation in Women with Obesity.

Obesity during pregnancy is a worrying public health problem worldwide. Maternal diet is critical for fatty acid (FA) placental transport and FA content in breast milk (BM). We evaluated FA composition in erythrocytes phospholipids (EP) and BM in pregnant women with (OBE, n = 30) and without (non-OBE, n = 31) obesity. Sixty-one healthy women were evaluated at their 20-24th gestational week and followed until 6th month of lactation. Diet was evaluated through a food frequency questionnaire. FA composition of EP and BM was assessed by gas-liquid chromatography. The OBE group showed lower diet quality, but total n-6 and n-3 polyunsaturated FA (PUFA), ALA, EPA, and DHA dietary intake was similar between groups. N-3 PUFA, ALA, DHA, and the n-6/n-3 PUFA ratio in EP were lower at the 6th lactation month in the OBE group. In BM, the arachidonic acid (AA) concentration was lower at the end of the lactation, and DHA content showed an earlier and constant decline in the OBE group compared to the non-OBE group. In conclusion, n-3 PUFA and AA and DHA levels were reduced in EP and BM in pregnant women with obesity. Strategies to increase n-3 PUFA are urgently needed during pregnancy and lactation, particularly in women with obesity.

Pandemic Effects and Gluten-Free Diet: An Adherence and Mental Health Problem.

The COVID-19 pandemic has been present for many months, influencing diets such as the gluten-free diet (GFD), which implies daily challenges even in non-pandemic conditions. Persons following the GFD were invited to answer online ad hoc and validated questionnaires characterizing self-perceptions of the pandemic, current clinical condition, dietary characteristics, adherence to GFD, anxiety, and depression. Of 331 participants, 87% experienced shortage and higher cost of food and 14.8% lost their jobs. Symptoms increased in 29% and 36.6% failed to obtain medical help. Although 52.3% increased food preparation at home and purchased alternative foodstuffs, 53.8% had consumed gluten-containing foods. The Health Eating Index was intermediate/"needs improvement" (mean 65.6 ± 13.3 points); in 49.9% (perception) and 44.4% (questionnaire), adherence was "bad". Anxiety and depression scores were above the cutoff in 28% and 40.4%, respectively. Adherence and mental health were strongly related. The likelihood of poor adherence was 2.3 times higher (p < 0.004) in participants declaring that pandemic altered GFD. Those suffering depressive symptoms were 1.3 times more likely to have poor adherence (p < 0.000). Depression and faulty GFD (mandatory for treatment) appear, affecting a high proportion of participants, suggesting that support measures aimed at these aspects would help improve the health condition of people that maintain GFD. Comparisons of data currently appearing in the literature available should be cautious because not only cultural aspects but conditions and timing of data collection are most variable.

Mediterranean Gluten-Free Diet: Is It a Fair Bet for the Treatment of Gluten-Related Disorders?

Gluten-free diet (GFD) is the current treatment of gluten-related disorders. It eliminates wheat, barley, and rye, while the exclusion of oats is still under debate. GFD is based on a combination of naturally gluten-free foods and gluten-free substitutes of cereal-based foods. Although effective as treatment of gluten-related disorders, today there is concern about how to improve GFD's nutritional quality, to make it not only gluten-free, but also healthy. The "Mediterranean diet" (MedD) refers to the dietary pattern and eating habits typical of populations living in the Mediterranean basin, which have been associated with low prevalence of several diet-related pathologies. Here we present a narrative review of the current knowledge about GFD and MedD, their characteristics and central food components. Based on the Mediterranean diet pyramid developed by the Italian pediatric society, we propose a combination between the MedD and the GFD, an attractive alternative to reach a gluten-free state that at the same time is healthy, with a clear benefit to those who practice it.

Diet, Plasma, Erythrocytes, and Spermatozoa Fatty Acid Composition Changes in Young Vegan Men.

There has been increasing interest in vegan diets, but how this dietary pattern regulates tissue fatty acids (FA), especially in men, is unclear. Our aim was to evaluate the effect of a vegan diet on plasma, erythrocyte, and spermatozoa FA composition in young men. Two groups consisting of 67 young (18-25 years old) men were studied. One group following an omnivore diet but did not consume fish, shellfish or other marine foods (control, n = 33), and another group following a vegan diet (vegan, n = 34) for at least 12 months were compared. Dietary intake was assessed via a food frequency questionnaire and a 24-h recall. FA composition was measured in plasma, erythrocyte phospholipids, and spermatozoa by gas-liquid chromatography. Compared to controls, the vegan group had higher reported intakes of carbohydrate, dietary fiber, vitamins (C, E, K, and folate), and minerals (copper, potassium) but lower intakes of cholesterol, trans FA, vitamins B6 , D, and B12 , and minerals (calcium, iron, and zinc). Vegan's reported a lower saturated FA and not arachidonic acid intake, both groups did not intake eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), but vegan's showed a higher alpha linolenic acid ALA intake. Vegans had higher plasma, erythrocyte phospholipid, and spermatozoa ALA, but lower levels of other n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA), especially DHA. Vegans were characterized by higher ALA, but lower levels of other n-3 PUFA, especially DHA in plasma, erythrocytes, and spermatozoids. The biological significance of these findings requires further study.

Living with Gluten and Other Food Intolerances: Self-Reported Diagnoses and Management.

People suffering from a food intolerance (FI) tend to initiate restrictive diets such as a gluten-free diet (GFD), to alleviate their symptoms. To learn about how people live with these problems in daily life (independent of their medical diagnoses), 1203 participants answered a previously validated questionnaire and were divided into: G1 (those self-reporting symptoms after gluten consumption) and G2 (those informing no discomfort after gluten consumption). Self-reported clinical characteristics, diagnoses and diets followed were registered. Twenty nine percent referred some FI (8.5% in G1). In G1, self-reported diagnoses were more frequent (p < 0.0001), including a high proportion of eating and mood disorders. Diagnoses were reported to be given by a physician, but GFD was indicated by professional and nonprofessional persons. In G2, despite declaring no symptoms after gluten consumption, 11.1% followed a GFD. The most frequent answer in both groups was that GFD was followed "to care for my health", suggesting that some celiac patients do not acknowledge it as treatment. Conclusion: close to one third of the population report suffering from some FI. Those perceiving themselves as gluten intolerant report more diseases (p < 0.0001). A GFD is followed by ~11% of those declaring no symptoms after gluten ingestion. This diet is perceived as a healthy eating option.

Efficacy of a High-Iron Dietary Intervention in Women with Celiac Disease and Iron Deficiency without Anemia: A Clinical Trial.

BACKGROUND AND AIM: Iron deficiency without anemia (IDWA) is a common finding in celiac disease (CD) and can also persist in case of good compliance and clinical response to a strict gluten-free diet (GFD). This scenario usually presents in CD women of child-bearing age in whom the imbalance between menstrual iron loss and inadequate iron intake from their diet plays the major role. A recommended approach to this condition is yet to be established. This study aimed to compare, in this subset of patients, the efficacy of a dietary approach consisting of an iron-rich diet against the traditional pharmacological oral-replacement therapy. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Between February and December 2016, consecutive CD female patients of child-bearing age as referred to our outpatient center with evidence of IDWA (ferritin <15 ng/mL or 15-20 ng/L with transferrin saturation <15%) were enrolled. After the completion of a 7-day weighed food intake recording to assess the usual iron dietary intake, the patients were randomized in two arms to receive a 12-week iron-rich diet (iron intake >20 mg/die) versus oral iron supplementation with ferrous sulfate (FS) (105 mg/day). Blood tests and dietary assessments were repeated at the end of treatment. The degree of compliance and tolerability to the treatments were assessed every month by means of specific questionnaires and symptoms evaluation. RESULTS: A total of 22 women were enrolled and divided in the diet group (n = 10, age 37 ± 8 years) and in the FS group (n = 12, age 38 ± 10 years). The food intake records demonstrated an inadequate daily intake of iron in all the enrolled subjects. At the end of the treatments, ferritin levels were higher in the FS group (8.5 (5) versus 34 (30.8), p = 0.002). Compliance and tolerability were similar in both treatment groups (89% versus 87%, p = ns). CONCLUSIONS: These findings did not support any equivalent efficacy of an iron-rich diet compared to a FS supplementation in non-anemic iron-deficient women affected by CD. However, the diet appeared a well-tolerated approach, and adequate dietary instructions could effectively increase the daily iron consumption, suggesting a role in the long-term management of IDWA, especially in patients who do not tolerate pharmacological supplementation.

Safety of occasional ingestion of gluten in patients with celiac disease: a real-life study.

BACKGROUND: Gluten-free diet (GFD) decreases the quality of life of celiac disease (CD) patients, who frequently ask to occasionally ingest gluten-containing food. We evaluated CD patients reporting voluntary and occasional transgressions to their GFD. METHODS: From October 2017 to September 2018, the patients reporting occasional and voluntary gluten ingestion (GFD-noncompliant) were prospectively enrolled. These patients underwent clinical examination, blood tests, duodenal biopsy, capsule enteroscopy (CE), and a validated food-frequency questionnaire (FFQ) assessing the frequency and quantity of gluten intake. Mortality was calculated and compared to the general population. A group of patients on strict GFD (GFD-adherent) acted as controls. RESULTS: One thousand three hundred seventy-eight CD patients were evaluated during the study period. One hundred nine (8%) reported occasional (weekly or monthly) voluntary ingestion of gluten. The mean gluten intake was 185.2 ± 336.9 g/year, and the duration of their incorrect GFD was 8.6 ± 6.9 years. Among the noncompliant patients, 57% did not present any histological alteration; furthermore, the Marsh score profile was not different between compliant and noncompliant patients. Seventy percent did not present any alteration at CE. Seventy-five percent of patients reported no gastrointestinal symptoms after gluten ingestion. Twenty-three percent of patients in the GFD-noncompliant group presented positive tTG-IgA. No association was found between gluten intake, clinical symptoms, and biomarkers. Mortality was not different between the groups and the general population. CONCLUSIONS: Our results are that in a real-life scenario, a group of CD patients on long-term gluten intake showed no significant clinical symptoms or small bowel damage, thus suggesting that a degree of tolerance towards gluten consumption can be reached.

Changes in Age at Diagnosis and Nutritional Course of Celiac Disease in the Last Two Decades.

The frequency of celiac disease (CD) has increased along time, with relevant changes reported in geographical variations, clinical presentation and nutritional repercussions. In recent years, some celiac patients are presenting overweight/obesity, but it is unclear how frequent this is and to what extent undernutrition remains a concern. This is relevant because CD tends to be overlooked in overweight patients. With this in mind, we assessed age at diagnosis, clinical characteristics and nutritional status of 155 celiac patients diagnosed between 1994-2017 in four pediatric hospitals in Santiago, Chile. Since 2003, the number of patients diagnosed has increased (p < 0.0033), coinciding with antitransglutaminase and antiendomysial antibodies becoming available to public health systems. In 2000, 4.5% of patients were asymptomatic at diagnosis, suggesting that active search is not routinely applied. Gastrointestinal symptoms plus failure to thrive were significantly more frequent under 2 years (p = 0.0001). Nutritional status has improved at diagnosis and during follow up, but undernutrition remains more frequent in children <2 and <5 years (p < 0.002 and p < 0.0036, respectively). Overweight at diagnosis was reported in 2002 and obesity in 2010. After initiating treatment, since 2010, patients changing from undernourishment to overweight has sometimes been observed after only 6 months on a gluten-free diet.

Dietary Gluten as a Conditioning Factor of the Gut Microbiota in Celiac Disease.

The gut microbiota plays a relevant role in determining an individual's health status, and the diet is a major factor in modulating the composition and function of gut microbiota. Gluten constitutes an essential dietary component in Western societies and is the environmental trigger of celiac disease. The presence/absence of gluten in the diet can change the diversity and proportions of the microbial communities constituting the gut microbiota. There is an intimate relation between gluten metabolism and celiac disease pathophysiology and gut microbiota; their interrelation defines intestinal health and homeostasis. Environmental factors modify the intestinal microbiota and, in turn, its changes modulate the mucosal and immune responses. Current evidence from studies of young and adult patients with celiac disease increasingly supports that dysbiosis (i.e., compositional and functional alterations of the gut microbiome) is present in celiac disease, but to what extent this is a cause or consequence of the disease and whether the different intestinal diseases (celiac disease, ulcerative colitis, Crohn disease) have specific change patterns is not yet clear. The use of bacterial-origin enzymes that help completion of gluten digestion is of interest because of the potential application as coadjuvant in the current treatment of celiac disease. In this narrative review, we address the current knowledge on the complex interaction between gluten digestion and metabolism, celiac disease, and the intestinal microbiota.

A miRNA-Based Blood and Mucosal Approach for Detecting and Monitoring Celiac Disease.

BACKGROUND: The role of microRNAs (miRNAs) in celiac disease (CD) is unclear. AIMS: We evaluated inflammation-related miRNA-146a, miRNA-155, miRNA-21, and miRNA-125b expression in peripheral blood and intestinal mucosa of CD adults. METHODS: Thirty patients with CD were included: patients with active CD on a gluten-containing diet (CD-active, n = 10), patients on a gluten-free diet (for at least 1 year), and patients with negative blood antibodies (CD-inactivePE, n = 10). In addition, ten healthy volunteers formed the comparison/control group. MiRNA expression was measured in duodenal biopsies from patients (CD-inactiveMU, n = 10) after in vitro exposure to PT gliadin and 33-mer peptide. MiRNAs expression was measured in plasma and in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) and monocytes, before and after in vitro exposure to native gliadin (gliadinN). RESULTS: Expression levels of miRNA-146a, miRNA-155, and miRNA-21 in PBMCs, miRNA-155 in monocytes and miRNA-155, miRNA-21, and miRNA-125b in plasma were elevated in both groups of celiac patients. After in vitro exposure with gliadinN, miRNA-146a and miRNA-155 expression markedly increased in PBMCs and monocytes, while miRNA-155 and miRNA-21 increased in the CD-active group. MiRNAs expression in intestinal mucosa did not change. MiRNA-146a and miRNA-155 expression showed high sensitivity and specificity for the presence of CD, irrespective of the current dietary treatment. CONCLUSIONS: Selected inflammation-related miRNAs expression is elevated in the peripheral blood of celiac. This suggests their participation in the immune processes underlying the pathology. Their similar response in active and inactive CD suggests that they should be further evaluated, as potential diagnostic biomarkers for CD.

Impact of FODMAP Content Restrictions on the Quality of Diet for Patients with Celiac Disease on a Gluten-Free Diet.

Restrictive diets as gluten-free (GFD) or reduced in Fermentable, Oligosaccharides, Disaccharides, Monosaccharides, and Polyols (FODMAP) are used to improve gastrointestinal (GI) symptoms in sensitive individuals. Aiming at comparing the nutritional quality and effects of a regular GFD regimen (R-GFD) and a low-FODMAP GFD (LF-GFD), in 46 celiac patients with persistent GI symptoms we conducted a randomized, double-blind intervention-controlled study. Patients received a personalized diet, either a strict GFD (n = 21) or a LF-GFD (n = 25) for 21 days. A validated food-frequency questionnaire before intervention and a 7-day weighed-food record after the intervention assessed the diets. Patients were 41.1 ± 10.1 years (mean ± SD), 94% women, with mean BMI 21.8 ± 2.9 kg/m2. On day 21, patients on R-GFD still showed poor nutritional adequacy compared to dietary recommendations, with decreased energy intake, even though an improvement in carbohydrates and folates was observed (all p < 0.025). In both groups, intake of iron, calcium, vitamin D, sodium and folates did not meet daily recommendations. As expected, consumption of legumes and grains was lower and that of fruits was higher in the LF-GFD group than in the R-GFD one (all p < 0.05). The nutritional quality of both diets was not different. When restrictive diets are useful to improve the persistent GI symptoms, careful nutritional surveillance and counseling is mandatory.

Correction: Roncoroni, L. et al. A Low FODMAP Gluten-Free Diet Improves Functional Gastrointestinal Disorders and Overall Mental Health of Celiac Disease Patients: A Randomized Controlled Trial. Nutrients 2018, 10, 1023.

The authors have requested that the following changes be made to their paper [...].

Exposure to Different Amounts of Dietary Gluten in Patients with Non-Celiac Gluten Sensitivity (NCGS): An Exploratory Study.

It is unclear whether patients with non-celiac gluten sensitivity (NCGS) can tolerate gluten. We have evaluated the changes of both gastrointestinal symptoms and quality of life for NCGS patients after the re-introduction of dietary gluten. Twenty-two NCGS patients reporting functional gastroenterological symptoms and on gluten-free diet (GFD) for the previous three weeks were exposed to incremental gluten-containing diets. Three groups were compared at baseline (immediately after 3-weeks on GFD) and immediately after the return of symptomatology: (i) a group tolerating a low-gluten diet (3.5 g gluten/day, week 1, n = 8), (ii) a group tolerating a mid-gluten diet (8 g gluten/day, week 2, n = 6), and (iii) a group tolerating a high-gluten diet (13 g gluten/day, week 3, n = 8). Their gastrointestinal symptoms and quality of life were assessed at baseline and post-intervention. The most common symptoms were: constipation (46%), abdominal pain (50%) and dyspepsia (38%). A decrease in several short form health survey (SF-36) sub-scores (all p < 0.03) after gluten re-introduction was only observed in the group tolerating the low-gluten diet; the same group showed a lower post-intervention role-emotional SF-36 score (p = 0.01). Most gastrointestinal symptoms remained similar after gluten re-introduction. However, a decrease in the general perception of well-being was only found after gluten re-introduction in the group tolerating a low-gluten diet (p = 0.01); the same was true when comparing the post-intervention general well-being perception among the three groups (p = 0.050). In conclusion, dissimilar responses from patients with NCGS were observed after the re-introduction of gluten, with gluten at a low dosage affecting the quality of life and general well-being of a group of patients, whereas others tolerate even higher doses of dietary gluten.

A Retrospective Study on Dietary FODMAP Intake in Celiac Patients Following a Gluten-Free Diet.

Our aim was to evaluate the intake of foods containing fermentable oligo/di/mono-saccharides and polyols (FODMAP) as a possible factor that induces gastrointestinal symptoms in treated celiac disease (CD) patients. We collected seven-day weighed food records for 104 CD patients and 91 healthy volunteers. All evaluated food items were from sources with high and low content of FODMAP, which were divided into cereals and sweets, sweeteners and soft drinks, fruits, dried fruits, and vegetables. Nutrient intake was calculated using the food database of the European Institute of Oncology. The symptoms reported were assessed by a Rome IV Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) diagnostic questionnaire and by specific questions for the evaluation of functional gastrointestinal disorders (FGIDs). The 12% of CD patients met IBS symptoms criteria as opposed to 6% of controls (p = 0.09) and 27% of patients reported FGIDs symptoms vs. 22% of healthy controls (p = 0.42). The intake by CD patients was significantly higher than healthy volunteers for: sweeteners and sugars with low content of FODMAP (p = 0.0007), fruits, dried fruits, and vegetables high in FODMAP (p = 0.003) and low in FODMAP (p = 0.04) when compared to controls. CD patients had a lower intake of cereals and sweets with a high content of FODMAP (p = 0.00001). Healthy volunteers consumed significantly higher alcoholic beverages and fats high in FODMAP (both p < 0.044). The mean daily intake of other food categories did not differ between both groups. Even though CD patients had a low intake of gluten-free cereals high in FODMAP, they still consumed a significant amount of fruits and vegetables high in FODMAP. The clinical effect of a concomitant gluten-free diet and low-FODMAP diet should be prospectively evaluated as a supportive therapy in CD patients.

A Low FODMAP Gluten-Free Diet Improves Functional Gastrointestinal Disorders and Overall Mental Health of Celiac Disease Patients: A Randomized Controlled Trial.

A subset of patients with celiac disease (CD) on a gluten-free diet (GFD) reported the persistence of functional gastrointestinal disorders. Foods containing fermentable, oligosaccharides, disaccharides, monosaccharides, and polyols (FODMAP) can trigger a broad range of gastrointestinal symptoms in sensitive individuals. We evaluated the effects of a low FODMAP diet (LFD) on gastrointestinal and psychological symptomatology in CD patients. A total of 50 celiac patients on GFDs and with persistence of gastrointestinal symptoms were included. The patients were randomly allocated to one of two dietary groups-one on a low FODMAP GFD (LF-GFD, n = 25) and the other on a regular GFD (R-GFD, n = 25)-for 21 days. Psychological symptomatology and quality of life were evaluated by the Symptom Checklist-90-R (SCL-90) and the Short Form (36) Health Survey (SF-36) questionnaires, respectively. Gastrointestinal symptomatology and general well-being were evaluated by visual analogue scale (VAS) scores. After 21 days, 21 and 23 patients completed the dietary treatment on LF-GFD and R-GFD, respectively. A reduced global SCL-90 index (p < 0.0003) was found in the LF-GFD group but not in the R-GFD one. However, the SF-36 scores did not differ between groups after treatment. The VAS for abdominal pain was much lower, and the VAS for fecal consistency enhanced after treatment in the LF-GFD group. General well-being increased in both groups but with a much higher improvement in the LF-GFD (p = 0.03). A short-term LFD regimen helps to improve the psychological health and gastrointestinal symptomatology with enhanced well-being of CD patients with persisting functional gastrointestinal symptomatology. The long-term clinical effects of LFD in particular subgroups of CD patients need further evaluation.

The Impact of Maternal Diet during Pregnancy and Lactation on the Fatty Acid Composition of Erythrocytes and Breast Milk of Chilean Women.

Maternal diet during pregnancy is relevant for fatty acid supply during fetal life and lactation. Arachidonic (AA) and docosahexaenoic (DHA) acids are also relevant for the normal growth and development of brain and visual system. AA and DHA provided by the mother to the fetus and infant are directly associated with maternal dietary intake and body stores. Our aim was to evaluate the impact of maternal diet, specially referring to the quality of fatty acid intake, in a sample of Chilean women during last stage of pregnancy and across the lactation period. Fifty healthy pregnant women (age range 20⁻33 years) were studied from the 6th month of pregnancy and followed until 6th month of lactation period. Diet characteristics were evaluated through food frequency questionnaires. Fatty acids composition of erythrocyte phospholipids and breast milk samples was assessed by gas-liquid chromatography. Overall, women had high saturated fatty acids intake with sufficient intake of mono- and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA). Diet was high in n-6 PUFA and low in n-3 PUFA (mainly DHA), with imbalanced n-6/n-3 PUFA ratio. Erythrocytes and breast milk DHA concentration was significantly reduced during lactation compared to pregnancy, a pattern not observed for AA. We concluded that is necessary to increase the intake of n-3 PUFA during pregnancy and lactation by improving the quality of consumed foods with particular emphasis on its DHA content.

The 5 Ws of a gluten challenge for gluten-related disorders.

Gluten-related disorders (GRDs) are gradually emerging as epidemiologically relevant diseases, with a global prevalence estimated to be approximately 5% in the population. Conditions related to gluten ingestion include celiac disease (CD), wheat allergy (WA), and nonceliac gluten sensitivity (NCGS). Although mediated by different pathogenic pathways, these 3 conditions share similar clinical manifestations and can present a difficult differential diagnosis. The gluten challenge (GC) is an important diagnostic tool for GRDs, but there is great variability in regards to deciding which patients should be challenged, what amount of gluten should be used, what the GC duration should be, when and where the GC should occur, and, sometimes, why to conduct a GC. This review summarizes the current knowledge about the desirable characteristics of GCs in the 3 main GRDs following a 5 Ws approach-that is, the 5 main journalistic questions: who, what, when, where, why. The answers will help to determine the correct use of the GC in diagnosing GRDs.