Young adults' personal and relationship memories: recollections of self, siblings, and family.

We investigated the phenomenological and narrative characteristics of young adults' self- and other-related memories within the context of significant relationships. We also examined whether participants' gender and/or gender concordance between participants and their siblings was associated with autobiographical memory characteristics. We collected data from 108 college students who had only one sibling. All participants provided narratives in response to three memory prompts (i.e., self-related, sibling-related, and family-related) and rated their memories along dimensions such as significance, emotional valence, clarity etc. The narratives were coded on thematic content, transformativeness, mentions of others, and event type dimensions. Results revealed differences between self-related memories and sibling- and family-related memories across several dimensions. However, sibling-related and family-related memories were mostly similar to each other. No statistically significant gender or gender concordance differences were observed. Further exploratory analysis showed that memory narratives describing extended events were more transformative than single event narratives. The findings enhance our understanding about the self-in-relation to others through relationship memories.

Children's and adults' memory for the order of events in a museum: A preliminary study about temporal memory and its development using photo-taking and event-related potentials.

Remembering personal past events and their order is important. These capacities are essential to episodic and autobiographical memory theories, are needed in the creation of life stories and vital in forensic settings. As important as memory for events and their order are, relatively little is known about their development and the underlying neural processes that support them. Further, there is a paucity of studies that have examined memory and its development for autobiographical, yet controlled, events. The objective of this study was to examine memory for the temporal order of naturalistic "real world" events by directly comparing 7-11-year-olds and adults using both behavioral and event-related potential (ERP) measures. Participants photographed events at a local museum and after a delay, we used their photographs to test their memory for the temporal order of pairs of the events. We experimentally manipulated the temporal distance between the event pairs (whether the two events photographed in the pair had a short or long temporal distance between them). A memory asymmetry manipulation was also included such that at retrieval, photographs were either presented in forward direction (photograph on the top configuration was taken before photograph shown on the bottom) or vice versa. Children and adults showed sensitivity to temporal distance between events based on behavior (in some instances accuracy was higher for long compared to short temporal distance) and ERP (differential neural processing for short and long temporal distance conditions). Only adults showed sensitivity to the memory asymmetry manipulation, and only when the events occurred within a short temporal distance. A larger study is needed to confirm the present "proof of concept" study results. There is strong potential of this photo paradigm approach, combining naturalistic events with ERP, in future developmental studies, and would further our understanding of how memory behavior and the neural processes underlying memory operate in the "real world."

Self-derivation through memory integration: a longitudinal examination of performance and relations with academic achievements in elementary classrooms.

Self-derivation through memory integration is the cognitive process of generating new knowledge by integrating individual facts. Across two studies, we longitudinally examined developmental change, individual stability, and relations with academic performance in a diverse agricultural community. We documented children's self-derivation in their classrooms and examined the relation with self-derivation and academic performance a year later. In Study 1, we examined self-derivation (n = 94; Mage= 6.67; initially grades K and 1) using the same paradigm at both time points. We found evidence of developmental change from Time 1 to Time 2. However, self-derivation accounted for a small portion of the variance in self-derivation (reflecting individual stability) and academic performance measured one year later. In Study 2, we examined self-derivation across two different paradigms with children beginning in Grades 2 and 3 (n = 82; Mage= 8.60). Even across paradigms, we found evidence for individual stability. Year 1 self-derivation also predicted Year 2 academic performance. We posit that self-derivation through integration is a domain-general construct related to academic performance.

Generative and active engagement in learning neuroscience: A comparison of self-derivation and rephrase.

It is crucial to identify cognitive mechanisms that support knowledge growth. One such mechanism that is known to improve learning outcomes is generative processing: the construction of novel information beyond what is directly taught. In this study of college students, we investigate the learning outcomes associated with the generative process of self-derivation through integration, the integration of multiple related facts to generate novel information. We compare the effects of self-derivation versus an active rephrase control condition on retrieval, application, and organization of neuroscience classroom content. In the self-derivation condition, learners were prompted to generate inferences based on integration of two explicitly-taught facts. In the rephrase condition, learners were explicitly provided these inferences and asked to rephrase them. We found few overall differences between learning manipulation conditions. However, we found that, regardless of the learning manipulation condition to which learners were exposed, learners generated their own information on some trials. This generation predicted success on retrieval and application of learned information. Further, self-derivation, when successful, led to particularly high rates of retrieval when compared with active rephrase. These findings inform theory on generative processing, and demonstrate that self-derivation is a mechanism of knowledge growth that may be useful for retrieval.

Recognizing limits on the generalizability of findings of psychological science research.

The five commentaries on the target article "Generalizations: The Grail and the Gremlins" (Bauer, 2023) provide food for thought on the issue of generalizations in psychological science. Generally speaking, there seems to be agreement in the field that unrecognized limits on the generalizability of the findings of psychological science research are a matter of serious concern. This reply to the commentaries features elaboration of this basic point of agreement as well as discussion of other points of convergence with the arguments in the target article. The reply also addresses areas of divergence between the target article and the commentaries, and among the commentaries themselves. The reply develops suggestions for ways forward inspired by the commentaries. Echoing the target article, the reply calls for greater authenticity in psychological science research, movement toward which would strengthen efforts along the full range of inquiry, from basic to applied.

Event characteristics help to explain the distribution of autobiographical memories over the first decade of life.

The shape of the distribution of autobiographical memories over the first decade of life is characterised by a paucity of memories from the early years followed by a gradual increase in the number of surviving memories. Though many events and experiences from this period are forgotten, some are well remembered. To better understand why certain memories survive, we examined characteristics of events recalled by young adolescents (12 - to 14-year-olds), sampled over their first decade of life, and whether they predict consistency in recall. Characteristics were assessed via third-party observer ratings of event narratives. Events with more negative emotional valence, lower frequency of occurrence, and that were culturally shared were more likely to be recalled. The details of events with less positive emotional valence, shorter duration, fewer changes in location, and less predictability were more consistently recalled. The characteristics of reported events were largely similar across the decade, with significant differences in the representation of event characteristics only between earliest memories (1-5 years) and later periods (6-10 years and the previous year). The findings suggest that event characteristics play a role in how consistently events are remembered and how memories are distributed over the first decade of life.

The influence of books' textual features and caregivers' extratextual talk on children's science learning in the context of shared book reading.

During early childhood, reading books with one's caregiver (shared book reading) is a valuable means of supporting learning. Yet, there are gaps in our understanding of the influence of shared book reading on young children's science learning. The current research bridges this gap by examining the pedagogical quality of science books in preschool-aged children's environments and investigating how such books influence children's learning and caregivers' extratextual talk during shared book reading. In Study 1, we coded 60 science books that were readily available in young children's environments within the United States. The books were designed for English speakers and recommended for preschool-aged children. We coded the books for the extent to which they were Coherent (elaborated on facts presented by providing details, examples, comparisons, etc.) and included Embedded Questions. However, many books were low in Cohesion and Embedded Questions and were of low pedagogical quality. In Study 2, we tested thirty-eight 4- to 5-year-old children (55% female, 76% White) and their caregivers in the Southeastern United States. We assessed the influence of books' levels of Cohesion and Embedded Questions and of caregivers' Elaborative extratextual talk during shared book reading on children's science learning. Children learned more from books high in Cohesion, irrespective of levels of Embedded Questions and caregivers' Elaborative Talk. Additionally, children learned more from books high in Embedded Questions when caregivers used more Elaborative Talk. This research highlights the importance that books' textual features and social interactions during shared book reading have in promoting early science learning. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Self-motivated and directed learning across the lifespan.

Self-motivated and directed learning is integral to knowledge base expansion for learners of all ages. Both motivational and cognitive processes drive self-motivated and directed lifelong learning, yet how these different processes operate together from childhood through adulthood is largely unknown. In this review, we discuss the role of personal motivators, such as beliefs in self-efficacy and personality traits in self-motivated and directed learning across the lifespan. We then consider the role of cognitive processes that contribute to knowledge base expansion in learners of all ages, specifically executive functions. We focus on working memory, inhibitory control, and task switching as potential determinants of lifelong learning. Finally, we integrate the two literatures, to discuss ways in which personal motivators may influence deployment of executive functions under self-motivated and directed conditions as a learner advances along a developmental trajectory. We also suggest ways to move the study of self-motivated and directed learning beyond observation and self-report measures thus affording experimental control. We aim to provide a more comprehensive understanding and novel insight to the mechanisms and processes of self-motivated and directed learning across the lifespan.

Support for learning under naturalistic conditions.

Educational opportunities occur through naturalistic everyday life experiences (e.g., reading a newspaper, listening to a podcast, or visiting a museum). Research primarily examines learning under controlled conditions, such as in a classroom or laboratory. There is relatively little known about the extent to which adults extract semantic content, beyond factual recall, from naturalistic educational experiences. In the present work, we focused on virtual museum exhibits. The materials were sourced directly from an art history museum. The naturalistic nature of this work stems from the type of content used though an important component of naturalistic learning-motivational processes-was not measured. In each of three experiments, we assessed adult learners' performance on tests of factual recall, inferential reasoning, and self-derivation through memory integration from naturalistic virtual museum exhibits. In anticipation of the potential challenge associated with learning outcomes under naturalistic conditions, we administered a yoked protocol under which participants had opportunities to engage in retrieval practice (Experiment 2a) or restudy (Experiment 2b) as explicit mechanisms of support for the three tests of learning. In all experiments, participants performed successfully on all three tests of learning; factual recall was the most accessible of the three learning outcomes. There was no difference in performance at the group level across experiments, but there was at the individual level, such that idea units generated during retrieval practice predicted learning outcomes, whereas restudy of those exact idea units did not. The current work provides novel insight into mechanisms underlying adult learning from naturalistic educational opportunities.

This should help with that: A behavioral investigation into self-derivation of knowledge about prescription medications.

Self-derivation of new factual knowledge is crucial for building a knowledge base. In three experiments, we investigated self-derivation about prescription medications. In Experiment 1, adults self-derived new knowledge across textual materials on 40% of trials. Participants in Experiment 2 performed similarly (42%), even when half the information was presented in videos. It was crucial that participants received both learning episodes to successfully self-derive: control condition participants received half the necessary information and performed significantly lower. When a delay was imposed between related facts in Experiment 3, participants self-derived on only 33% of trials and performance did not differ from the control condition. The present research expanded our understanding of adults' learning and self-derivation across media about medications. It revealed room for improvement in adults' learning and self-derivation about health information. This work suggests the need to identify factors that alter performance, including better understanding of the properties of information sources.

Determinants of elementary-school academic achievement: Component cognitive abilities and memory integration.

Children are on a quest for knowledge. To achieve it, children must integrate separate but related episodes of learning. The theoretical model of memory integration posits that the process is supported by component cognitive abilities. In turn, memory integration predicts accumulation of a knowledge base. We tested this model in two studies (data collected in 2016-2018) with second (8-year-olds; n = 391; 196 female; 36% Black, 27% Hispanic/Latinx, 29% White, and 8% multiracial) and third (9-year-olds; n = 282; 148 female; 36% Black, 31% Hispanic/Latinx, 27% White, and 5% multiracial) graders. The results support the theoretical model and the role of verbal comprehension in learning new information, and also indicate that verbal comprehension alone is not sufficient to build knowledge.

Self-derivation of new knowledge through memory integration varies as a function of prior knowledge.

ABSTRACTThe current research was an investigation of the effects of prior, domain-relevant knowledge on self-derivation of new, integrated knowledge. Adults were presented with novel "stem" facts and tested for self-derivation of new knowledge through integration of the facts in memory. To examine the effects of prior knowledge on memory integration, we tested participants under three within-subject conditions, in which in advance of stem encoding, they were provided with either: (1) no domain relevant information (No Knowledge control), (2) generally relevant information about the domain (General), or (3) generally relevant information about the domain along with a stem fact that was directly necessary for self-derivation (General + Stem). Prior exposure to both General and General + Stem knowledge facilitated memory for the novel, explicitly-taught stem facts. Moreover, for both prior knowledge conditions, the amount of domain-relevant knowledge retained in memory was associated with trial-by-trial self-derivation success. Importantly, the type of prior knowledge modulated memory integration in different ways. Whereas General + Stem knowledge enhanced selective retrieval and integration of the stem facts, General knowledge supported learning of the individual stem facts, but not their integration with one another. Together, the findings indicate how malleable, domain-specific experience shapes encoding, integration, and flexible extension of new, related information.

Putting the pieces together: Cognitive correlates of self-derivation of new knowledge in elementary school classrooms.

A central goal of development and formal education is to build a knowledge base. Accumulating knowledge relies, in part, on self-derivation of new semantic knowledge via integration of separate yet related learning episodes. Previous tests of self-derivation evidence both age-related and significant individual variability in self-derivation performance in the laboratory and the classroom due in part to individual differences in verbal comprehension (children and adults) and working memory (adults only). In the only extant investigation of cognitive correlates of children's successful self-derivation in the classroom, 3rd graders' verbal comprehension predicted self-derivation, whereas working memory did not. In the current research, we expanded the battery of cognitive correlates investigated, the age range of participants (8-11 years), and the sample size (N = 330) to examine candidate sources of variability in self-derivation. More specifically, in a diverse sample, we measured children's auditory and spatial working memory, inhibitory control, metacognitive awareness, verbal comprehension, and metacognitive judgments at test for self-derivation. Metacognition was of particular interest in the current research because little is currently known about how children's understanding of their cognition, at the trait or item-specific level, may affect their derivation of new knowledge. Only verbal comprehension and metacognitive knowledge predicted children's self-derivation performance; children's metacognitive judgments at the time of testing for self-derivation were not related to their performance. These findings suggest that having both semantic knowledge and knowledge of one's self as a learner, as well as knowing how to use one's knowledge, support further knowledge base development.

We Know More Than We Ever Learned: Processes Involved in the Accumulation of World Knowledge.

Accumulating information and knowledge is a major task of development. A common assumption is that we build our storehouse of world knowledge, our semantic memory, through direct experience. Although direct experience is involved, to explain fully how we know all that we know, we also must consider processes that allow for integration of information learned in separate yet related episodes of direct learning, as well as inferential processes that operate over integrated representations and permit productive extension of knowledge. In this article, I describe the self-derivation through integration paradigm my colleagues and I developed to model these processes. Using this paradigm, we charted individual and developmental variability throughout childhood and in young adults. Several findings support the contention that the self-derivation through integration paradigm provides a valid model for how we build semantic knowledge, including the observations that performance on the task correlates with and predicts individuals' world knowledge and academic success.

Relating a picture and 1000 words: Self-derivation through integration within and across presentation formats.

To build knowledge, separate yet related learning episodes can be integrated with one another and then used to derive new knowledge. Separate episodes are often experienced through different formats, such as text passages and graphic representations. Accordingly, in the present research, we tested integration of learning episodes provided through different presentation formats with children in the laboratory (Experiment 1; n = 24; M = 8.36 years) and in classrooms (Experiment 2; n = 85; M = 9.34 years and Experiment 3; n = 154; M = 10.67 years). Children in the laboratory were successful in both same-format and different-format conditions. Children in the classroom were also successful in both conditions, but in Exp. 2 showed a cost to integration across two different presentation formats compared to the same-format condition. In Exp. 3, greater support for encoding the graphic information was added and performance no longer showed a cost between conditions.